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Sample translations submitted: 8
Estonian to English: Patent Application General field: Law/Patents Detailed field: Genetics
Source text - Estonian Võttes arvesse antud tehnika taset on selge, et on vaja universaalsemat, ühtsemat ja robustsemat meetodit, mis oleks usaldusväärselt tundlik ja samal ajal ka spetsiifiline mikroobide tuvastamiseks ja kvalifitseerimiseks läbi spetsiifiliste nukleiinhapete järjestuste paljundamise. Samuti peaks nimetatud meetod kõrvaldama vajaduse iga konkreetse mikroobse organismi korral läheneda individuaalselt organismi identifitseerimisele. Vastav meetod peaks olema ka rakendatav mikroobsete organismide identifitseerimiseks ja/või kvalifitseerimiseks kui on teada ainult vastava organismi genoomne DNA järjestus (st pole teada vastava genoomi annotatsiooni). Täpsemalt on vaja sobivad spetsiifilisi sihtmärkjärjestusi nukleiinhapete tundlikuks paljundamiseks eesmärgiga identifitseerida organisme.
Eeltoodust järeldub, et enamus kasutab detektsiooniks vajalike oligonukleotiidide disainil sihtmärkjärjestustena (konserveerunud) kodeerivaid järjestusi. Juhuslikke mittekodeerivad järjestusi, mis ei piirne spetsiifiliste konserveerunud järjestustega, tüüpiliselt oligonukleotiidide disainil ei vaadelda. Enamikel juhtudel disainitakse diagnostikas kasutatavad oligonukleotiidid ribosoomaalsete geenide DNA järjestustele. Käesoleva ajani pole organisme identifitseerivate oligonukleotiidide disainimise eesmärgil kasutatud korduvaid järjestusi, mis oleks otsitud üle kogu mikroobse organismi genoomi järjestuse sõltumatult kodeerivatest piirkondadest. Viimast seetõttu, et oligonukleotiidide disainil välditakse korduvaid järjestusi, kuna rohke arv kordusjärjestusi põhjustab ebaspetsiifiliste alade paljundamist. Lisaks on tüüpiliselt kordusjägestuste arv väiksemates genoomides väike ning seetõttu ei võeta vastavaid piirkondi oligonukleotiidide disainimisel arvesse. Sellega seoses jäetakse vaatluse alt kõrvale paljud spetsiifilised järjestused, mis tegelikult võimaldavad spetsiifiliste ja sensitiivsete oligonukleotiidide disaini. Veelgi enam, erinevate mikroobsete taksonite eristamine seni kasutatud konserveerunud järjestuste alusel pole nimetatud järjestuste liialt kõrge või liialt madala (sõltuvalt taksoni tasemest) varieeruvuse tõttu võimalik olnud. Samuti on viimase lähenemise korral vaja teada antud organismi genoomi anntotatsiooni.
Käesolevas leiutises on leiutajad jõudnud ootamatute tulemusteni kasutades organismi-spetsiifilisi korduvaid järjestusi, mis on leitud üle uuritava organismi genoomi 15 (sõltumatult annotatsiooni andmetest) spetsiifiliste oligonukleotiidide disainimiseks, mis võimaldavad tundlikult identifitseerida sihtmärkgenoome kasutades selleks mistahes nukleiinhappe paljundamise testi.
Translation - English Bearing in mind the technical level, it is obvious that there is a need for a more universal, uniform, and robust method that would be reliably sensitive and, at the same time, specific for the identification and quantification of microbes through the propagation of specific nucleic acid sequences. Such a method should also eliminate a need for an individual approach to the identification of every microbial organism. Such a method should also be applicable for the identification and/or quantification of microbial organisms when only the genomic DNA sequence of the given microbial organism is known (i.e. the annotation of that particular genome is unknown). More particularly, suitable specific target sequences are required for the propagation of nucleic acids with the aim of identifying organisms.
It can be deduced from the aforesaid, that the majority uses (conserved) coding sequences as target sequences while designing oligonucleotides necessary for detection. Random non-coding sequences not bordered by specific conserved sequences are typically not tested when designing oligonucleotides. In most cases the oligonucleotides used for diagnostic purposes are designed for the DNA sequences of ribosomal genes. Repetitive sequences searched from the whole genomic sequence of a microbial organism, regardless of the coding areas, have to date never been used for the purpose of designing oligonucleotides that are used to identify organisms. This is because repetitive sequences are avoided for designing oligonucleotides, as the abundance of repetitive sequences causes the propagation of non-specific areas. Additionally, the number of repetitive genomes is typically low in smaller genomes, and therefore, respective areas are not considered when designing oligonucleotides. Hence, many specific sequences that would actually allow the designing of specific and sensitive oligonucleotides are left untested. Moreover, the identification of different microbial taxa against the conserved sequences used until now has been impossible due to either too high or too low (depending on taxon level) variability of the said sequences. Also, the latter approach requires knowledge of the genomic annotation of a given organism.
In the present invention, the inventors have achieved unexpected results by making use of organism-specific repetitive sequences that were found over the genome (independently of annotation data) of a tested organism for the purpose of designing specific oligonucleotides that allow sensitive identification of target genomes by using the propagation test of any nucleic acid.
Estonian to English: Estonian Music Yearbook. Article General field: Other Detailed field: Music
Source text - Estonian Kuldaväärt Ellerhein
Tütarlastekoor Ellerhein on üks Eesti koorimuusika lipulaevu, keda teab peaaegu iga eestlane ja enamik koorimuusikasõpru üle maailma. Nende saavutuste rida ja kontsertide arv äratavad aukartust ning nende tase on püsivalt kõrge kullaprooviga. Sealjuures pole koor kunagi väsinud ega loorberitele puhkama jäänud, vaid võistleb pea igal aastal mõnel konkursil ning saab sealt ka alati auhinnalise koha. Enamasti esimese.
Lappasin huvi pärast Eesti ainsa rahvusvahelise koorikonkursi, Koorifestivali „Tallinn” ajalugu. Alates selle asutamisest 1972. aastal on Ellerhein seal võistelnud kuuel korral ning saanud kaks korda II koha: 1988. aastal, kui koori juhatas Heino Kaljuste, ning 1991. aastal, kui koori juhatas Tiia-Ester Loitme. Ülejäänud kordadel kuulus Ellerheinale esikoht. Ning tänavusel XI koorifestivalil võistlevad nad jälle.
Ellerhein annab ka palju kontserte, millest olulise osa moodustavad vokaalsümfooniliste suurvormide ettekanded. Sealjuures esinevad nad sageli koos Eesti Rahvusmeeskooriga, moodustades suure segakoori. Ärgem unustagem, et Rahvusmeeskoor on professionaalne koor, Ellerheinas aga laulavad gümnaasiumiealised tütarlapsed!
Ellerhein on esiettekandes publiku ette toonud mitmeid eesti heliloojate teoseid ning plaadistanud 10 CDd, lisaks viis CDd Eesti muusikaga jaapani plaadifirmadele. Nende salvestatud eesti muusikat leidub Eesti Raadio fonoteegis enam kui 1000 nimetust.
Milles peitub nende 70 tüdruku fenomen? Ehk selles, et nad kasvavad muusika sees – Ellerheina tullakse laulma I klassis, läbitakse mudilas- ja lastekoorietapp ja alles siis jõutakse tütarlastekoori. Lisaks koorilaulule õpivad lapsed solfedžot ja harmooniat ning saavad individuaalset hääleseadet.
Või ehk traditsioonides? Ellerhein on loodud 58 aastat tagasi (1951, tollal Tallinna Lastekoori nime all ja nimetati 1969 lastekooriks Ellerhein) ning see nimi on kujunenud kvaliteedimärgiks. Sisuliselt on tegu kooristuudioga, kust saab mitmekülgse lauljahariduse ning väga hea kontserdi- ja konkursikogemuse.
Ehk tugevates dirigentides? Ellerheina asutaja professor Heino Kaljuste juhatas koori ligi nelikümmend aastat, pärast tema surma võttis Ellerheina üle senine abidirigent Tiia-Ester Loitme, kes jätkab siiani ning on kooriga ka Grammy võitnud – sealjuures on Ellerhein ainus Eesti mitteprofessionaalne koor, kellele see au on osaks saanud. Pole just palju koore, kes 58 tegevusaasta jooksul kahe peadirigendiga toime tuleksid, tihtipeale vahetuvad dirigendid hoopis kiiremini. Aga Ellerhein ja Tiia-Ester Loitme on üks klassikalisi näiteid koori ja dirigendi kooskasvamisest. Suureks kasvamisest.
Ehk heas meeskonnas? Tiia Loitme rõhutab alati, et dirigent ei saavuta tulemusi üksi. Teda aitavad Ellerheina juures koormeister ja solfedžo õpetaja Ülle Sander, kontsertmeister Katrin Kuldjärv ja hääleseadja Eha Pärg (alates 2008. aastast, seni töötas tüdrukute vokaaliga enam kui 20 aasta jooksul Ester Lepa).
Ilmselt koosneb Ellerheina kvaliteet kõigi nende tegurite summast. Kusjuures erinevalt matemaatikast on summa suurem kui liidetavate tegurite nimiväärtus kokku. Lisandub veel miski, mis teeb heast tulemusest suure tulemuse, kvaliteetsest esitusest muusika.
Möödunud aasta oli Ellerheinale taas saavutusterohke, alates Eesti Kooriühingu antud tiitlist Aasta koor 2007 ning lõppedes Jaapani Tõusva Päikese ordeni kuldsete kiirte ja rosetiga andmisega koori peadirigendile Tiia-Ester Loitmele. Nende saavutuste vahele mahtus Grand Prix’ võit ning sellega kaasnev tiitel Choir of The World of Kathaumixw Kanadas Powell Riveris toimunud rahvusvaheliselt koorifestivalilt. Kuid Ellerhein andis 2008. aastal veel 30 kontserti nii Eestis kui välismaal, salvestas muusikat jaapani telekompaniile Benese TV ja Eesti Rahvusringhäälingule, esines Eesti Vabariigi 90. aastapäeva kontsertidel Haagis, Brüsselis ja Pariisis, laulis Eestis külaskäigul viibinud Hollandi kuninganna Beatrixile, andis välja CD (Peeter Vähi „Green Tara” ja György Orbáni Missa nr 9) ning pidas oma traditsioonilise laululaagri Karepal. Lisaks osaleti mitmes suurvormiettekandes: Villem Kapi ooperis „Lembitu” Lõhavere linnamäel, Gottfried von Einemi „Loomade reekviem” ja Timo Steineri „Kuked ja kanad” Tallinna Loomaaias ja Gustav Holsti „Planeedid” Estonia kontserdisaalis.
Selle loetelu väärilist vähemalt Eesti kooride seas naljalt ei leia. Ellerheina töövõime ja -kvaliteet väärivad tunnustust, ning suur roll selles on kindlasti nende dirigendil.
Tiia-Ester Loitme on sama eriline ja oma nägu kui Ellerhein. Õieti ongi vist Ellerhein tema nägu või tema Ellerheina moodi – on ta ju kooriga töötanud ligi 40 aastat, sellest viimased 20 peadirigendina. Ehkki ta on olnud ka Tallinna Riikliku Konservatooriumi õppejõud (küll vaid kuus aastat) ning Tallinna Inglise Kolledžis muusikaõpetaja ja koorijuht (19 aastat), teatakse teda põhiliselt ikka just Ellerheina peadirigendina – nii nagu tema õpetaja Gustav Ernesaks on eestlaste meelde ja südamesse jäänud Eesti Rahvusmeeskoori peadirigendina. Ja nagu Ernesakski, on Tiia-Ester Loitme seisnud paljudel eesti laulupidudel dirigendipuldis, et juhatada tuhandetest lauljatest koosnevat ühendkoori.
Tiia-Estrile on antud kümneid aunimetusi, tiitleid ja preemiaid, kuid eelkõige on ta ikkagi Suur Muusik, kelle interpretatsioon pole iialgi igav ning kel leidub alati mõni värske ja huvitav idee. Temaga kohtumine kontserdi- või proovisaalis inspireerib nii publikut kui kaasmusitseerijaid ning eesti muusikas on tal Päris Oma Koht.
Kaie Tanner
Ellerheina Grand Prix’d rahvusvahelistel konkurssidel:
1993 Nantes, Prantsusmaa
1995 Takarazuka, Jaapan
1997 Tolosa (Euroopa Grand Prix), Hispaania
2008 Kathaumixw (Choir of the World), Kanada
2004 Grammy - Jean Sibelius “Cantatas” (Virgin Classics), parim koorimuusika ettekanne.
Tütarlastekoor Ellerhein, Eesti Rahvusmeeskoor, Eesti Riiklik Sümfooniaorkester, dirigent Paavo Järvi.
Koormeistrid: Ants Soots, Tiia-Ester Loitme
Plaadistaja: Maido Maadik
Ellerheina esikohad rahvusvahelistel konkurssidel:
1997 Giessen (Saksamaa)
1997 Tolosa (Hispaania)
2000, 2001, 2003, 2005 ja 2007 Tallinn
2005 Ankara (Türgi).
2007 EBU raadiokonkurss „Let the Peoples Sing” Wuppertalis (Saksamaa)
Tiia- Ester Loitme auhindu:
1995 Gustav Ernesaksa koorimuusika auhind
1997 EV Valgetähe medal
1998 Tallinna linna teenetemärk
1999 Aasta Naine
2002 Hea Õpetaja
2002 Tallinna linna aukodanik
2003 Heino Kaljuste nimeline stipendium
2003 Kultuurkapitali helikunsti sihtkapitali aastapreemia
2004 Recording Academy (USA) liige
2004 Vabariigi Presidendi Kultuurirahastu Hariduspreemia
2004 UNICEFi Sinilinnu aastapreemia
2004 SA Eesti Rahvuskultuuri Fondi loominguline stipendium aasta silmapaistvamale muusikaõpetajale
2004 Grammy auhind
2005 Valgetähe III klassi teenetemärk
2008 Kooriühingu auliige
2008 Tõusva Päikese orden kuldsete kiirte ja rosetiga (Jaapan)
2009 Eesti Ringhäälingu Aasta muusik 2008
Translation - English The Golden Ellerhein
Ellerhein Girls’ Choir is one of the flagships of Estonian choral music. The choir is known by every Estonian and by most classical music lovers of the world. Their list of accomplishments and number of concerts are imposing and their level of performance has a stably high rate of gold. Moreover, the choir is neither tired, nor do they never retire on their laurels. On the contrary, they take part in choir competitions almost every year and always get a prize. Usually the first one.
Just out of curiosity, I thumbed the history of Estonia’s only international choir competition –the Tallinn Choir Festival. Since their establishment in 1972, Ellerhein has taken part in the competition for six times and won the second prize twice: in 1988, when the choir was conducted by Heino Kaljuste and in 1991, conducted by Tiia-Ester Loitme. In other years they’ve always got the first prize. This year they participated again and won the Grand Prix.
Ellerhein also gives a lot of concerts, many of what are the performances of large vocal-symphonic compositions. They often perform with Estonian National Male Choir, thus forming a mixed choir. Let us not forget that while ENMC is a professional choir, Ellerhein is made up of high school-aged girls!
Ellerhein has presented the first performances of a number of compositions from Estonian composers and recorded 10 CDs, additionally five CDs with Estonian music for Japanese record companies. They have over 1000 recordings of Estonian music in Radio Estonia music library.
Where does the phenomenon of these 70 girls lie? Maybe in their growth environment i.e. music? Girls come to Ellerhein in the first grade; they pass the phases of kids’ choir and children’s choir and only then becomes the time to start singing in the girls’ choir. In addition to choral singing, girls learn solfeggio and harmony and get individual voice placing lessons.
Or maybe in traditions? Ellerhein was established 58 years ago (in 1951, under the name of Tallinn Children’s Choir; in 1969 they were renamed as Children’s Choir Ellerhein) and ever since, their name has evolved into a quality mark. Technically speaking, Ellerhein is a choir studio, giving the girls a diverse singer education plus excellent performing and competing experiences.
Or could the x-factor lie in capable conductors? Heino Kaljuste, the founder of the choir, conducted Ellerhein for almost forty years. After his death, the then assistant conductor Tiia-Ester Loitme took over the choir and works with the girls until today. She is the one, under whose leadership Ellerhein won Grammy – whereas Ellerhein is the only non-professional Estonian choir with the Grammy Award. There are not many choirs, who have managed with just two general conductors in 58 years. Conductors tend to change sooner. But Ellerhein and Tiia-Ester Loitme make a classical example of a choir and a conductor evolving together. Growing up, so to say.
In a good team, maybe? Tiia Loitme always emphasizes that the conductor does not get the results alone. She is assisted with Ellerhein by a choirmaster and solfeggio pedagogue Ülle Sander, concert-master Katrin Kuldjärv and voice placer Eha Pärg (from 2008. Until then, Ester Lepa worked with the girls for over 20 years).
Apparently the quality of Ellerhein is made up of all those factors. And unlike mathematics, the sum here is bigger than the nominal value of the summands. In addition, there comes this something that makes a good result a great one and turns an excellent presentation into breathtaking music.
Last year was full of achievements for Ellerhein, starting from winning the title of the Choir of the Year 2007, attributed by Estonian Choral Association and concluding with the decoration of general conductor Tiia-Ester Loitme with the Japanese Order of the Rising Sun with Golden Rays and a Rosette. In between these achievements fit the winning of Grand Prix and the accompanying title of the Choir of The World of Kathaumixw at the international choir festival that took place in Powell River, Canada. But they accomplished even more in 2008: Ellerhein gave 30 concerts at home and abroad, recorded music for the Japanese TV-channel Benese TV and for Estonian Public Broadcasting, performed at the 90th anniversary concerts of the Republic of Estonia in Hague, Brussels and Paris, performed to Her Royal Highness Queen Beatrixe of Holland at her visit to Estonia, released a CD (Peeter Vähi’s “Green Tara” and György Orbán’s Mass No. 9) and held their traditional singing camp in Karepa. Additionally, Ellerhein participated in the performance of several large format musical compositions: Villem Kapp’s opera “Lembitu” at the ancient Lõhavere settlement, Gottfried von Einem’s “Requiem of Animals” and Timo Steiner’s “Cocks and Hens” at Tallinn Zoo, plus Gustav Holst’s “Planets” in the Estonia Concert Hall.
One can barely find a choir in Estonia capable of challenging this impressive list. The working capacity and quality of Ellerhein are worth recognition and their conductor doubtlessly plays a major role in it.
Tiia-Ester Loitme is as special as Ellerhein. In fact, Ellerhein looks like her or she looks like Ellerhein – after all, she’s been working with the choir for nearly 40 years, the last 20 ones as the general conductor. And although she has also worked as a lecturer at Tallinn Conservatory (for six years) and a music teacher and conductor at Tallinn English College (19 years), she is best-known as the general conductor of Ellerhein – just like her teacher Gustav Ernesaks is memorized by our people as the general conductor of Estonian National Male Choir. And like Ernesaks, Tiia-Ester Loitme has stood in the conductor’s rostrum at numerous Estonian song festivals to conduct the joint chorus made up of thousands of singers.
Tiia-Ester has been attributed tens of honours, titles and awards, but above all, she’s a Great Musician, whose interpretations are never boring and who is extremely resourceful with fresh ideas. Meeting her at a concert or in a rehearsal room inspires both the audience and the musicians and she has Her Very Own Place in Estonian music.
Kaie Tanner
Ellerhein’s Grand Prix awards from international competitions:
1993 Nantes, France
1995 Takarazuka, Japan
1997 Tolosa (European Grand Prix), Spain
2008 Kathaumixw (Choir of the World), Canada
2004 Grammy - Jean Sibelius “Cantatas” (Virgin Classics), best performance of choral music.
Girls’ Choir Ellerhein, Estonian National Male Choir, Estonian National Symphony Orchestra, conductor Paavo Järvi.
Choirmasters: Ants Soots, Tiia-Ester Loitme
Recorder: Maido Maadik
Ellerhein’s first places from international competitions:
1997 Giessen (Germany)
1997 Tolosa (Spain)
2000, 2001, 2003, 2005 and 2007 Tallinn
2005 Ankara (Turkey).
2007 EBU radio competition „Let the Peoples Sing” in Wuppertal (Germany)
Awards granted to Tiia- Ester Loitme:
1995 Gustav Ernesaks Choir Music Award
1997 The Order of the White Star of the Republic of Estonia
1998 Honorary decoration of the City of Tallinn
1999 Woman of the Year
2002 Good Teacher
2002 Honorary Citizen of the City of Tallinn
2003 The Heino Kaljuste Scholarship
2003 The Cultural Endowment annual music endowment
2004 member of the Recording Academy (USA)
2004 The President of the Republic of Estonia Culture Fund Education Prize
2004 UNICEF Bluebird Annual Prize
2004 Estonian National Culture Foundation creative scholarship for the most distinguished music teacher of the year
2004 Grammy Award
2005 Order of the White Star of the third class
2008 Honorary member of Estonian Choral Association
2008 Order of the Rising Sun with Golden Rays and a Rosetta (Japan)
2009 Estonian Broadcasting Musician of the Year 2008
English to Estonian: Interview
Source text - English The interview was prepared and conducted by me in English. The translation was made directly from the audio.
Translation - Estonian Anton Goudsmit: väike, aga väga jube mees
Ansambli The Ploctones mootori Anton Goudsmitiga vestles Katre Koit
“Tõeline 'bändimees’, kes tunnetab täpselt jazzi ja improvisatsioonilise muusika olemust (või seda, mis see peaks olema), nimelt KOOSMÄNGU, kus bändikaaslaste vaheline suhtlus ja leidlikkus on alati soleerimisest olulisem
28. aprillil esines Vene Kultuurikeskuse sirbi ja vasaraga saalis Hollandi jazzgrupp The Plocktones. Instrumentaalansambli kunstiline juht – kui nõukaaegse nostalgia lainel edasi vallatleda – Anton Goudsmit nimetab ansamblit hellitavalt "oma lapsukeseks". Tema särisev huumorisoon, erinevate stiilide valdamine ja mõnus kokkumäng kaasmuusikutega on vaid mõned põhjused, miks selle aasta Hollandi jazzmuusika mainekaim auhind Boy Edgar Prijs ulatati kõigest kaks päeva enne jazzkaare kontserti Anton Goudsmitile.
Saalist vaadates on ilmne, et mees on muusikat pilgeni täis ja see, mis ei mahu välja kitarrikeelte alt, otsib pidurdamatult väljapääsu kitarrimänguga kaasneva spontaanse kaasaümisemisena. Päris kahju hakkab, et tal pole küljes teist kätepaari. Lugude vahele poetatud pajatusi kuulates, mille diapasoon kõigub muheda huumori saatel nii üles- kui allapoole vööd, tundub juba, et olen valmistanud intervjuuks liiga magedad küsimused – lavalt valitseb publikut väike, aga väga jube mees. Hiljem, festivali green roomis vesteldes tõden teatud kergendusega, et tavaolukorras pole Anton Goudsmit sugugi pöörane, vaid meeldivalt tasakaalukas vestluskaaslane.
Millise hinde annate viie punkti skaalal äsjasele esinemisele? Nelja. Esinesime paari päeva eest Boy Edgari auhinnagalal Bimhuisi saalis Amsterdamis ja klubibändina oleme harjunud rohkem kuiva akustikaga. Siinne saal on imeilusa akustikaga. Lausa liiga ilusaga, kui mängida näiteks folgi või rocki mõjutustega muusikat. Eriti sobib siinne akustika viiuli, klaveri ja saksofoniga. Mõned lood õnnestusid sajaprotsendiliselt – „050“ ja „Muchacha“ näiteks, teiste heli oli natuke ebatäpne. Soundcheck sai tehtud tühja saaliga, aga publiku kohalolu muudab akustikat, nii et paar-kolm esimest lugu olid selles mõttes veidi problemaatilised, aga helitehnikud andsid endast parima ja edasi sujus kõik normaalselt.
Suurim erinevus live-esinemiste ja stuudiotöö vahel? Mängin publiku ees alati paremini kui proovis või stuudios. Ilmselt on põhjusteks nii publikust tulvav energia kui ka minu soov ennast tõestada. Stuudios on asi vastupidine – seal mängin vähem püüdlikult. Ma ei ole tegelikult mingi stuudiomuusik, eelistan iga kell live-esinemisi. Üks asi, mis ma stuudiotöö kohta selgeks olen saanud, on see, et ei tasu hakata kohe igat lugu kriitiliselt üle kuulama. Muidu jäädki mingit kohta umber tegema ja muusika kaotab lõpuks igasuguse elu.
On teil bändis tööjaotuse suhtes palju vaidlemist? Oh ei, muusikud on väga mõnus rahvas. Päriselt. Me pole nagu advokaadid (naerab).
Kas eelistate väikest või suurt publikut? Sõltub. Näiteks täna saime suurepärase tulemuse ka saksofoniga kahekesi, selliseid lugusid oleks võinud isegi rohkem teha. Tavaliselt käib meil laval metsik andmine, esitame keerulisi rütme ja meloodiakäike. Kiidan siinkohal meie trummimeest, kes on fantastiline muusik ja suuteline mängima mida iganes. Tänane kontsert oli akadeemilisem selles mõttes, et kõik istusid omadel kohtadel. Mulle meeldib, kui publik kontserdi ajal istub. Siis on võimalik nende poole pöörduda ja saada neilt ka jäägitut tähelepanu.
Olete pigem meelelahutajad või ajate laval oma asja? Mõlemat. Meie eesmärk on protsessi nautida. Loomulikult on muusiku kohus anda laval endast parim. Samuti peame jälgima teisi bändi liikmeid ja publiku reaktsioone. Peame suutma hoida inimeste tähelepanu, meele järgi olemine pole esmatähtis. Publikule tuleb jätta mulje, mida nad saavad hiljem meenutada. Ja muidugi vastutab iga muusik ka oma isikliku arengu eest.
Mis on see miski, mis The Ploctones'i koos hoiab? Esiteks muidugi muusika. Teiseks tõsiasi, et me ei esine koos kaugeltki mitte iga päev. Tunnen oma bändikaaslaste vastu sügavat austust. Suudame esitada peaaegu igasugust muusikat, nagu täna võis kuulda. Sosistamisest forte fortissimoni. Improviseerime pidevalt, muudame palade esitusjärjekorda jne. Mõistame üksteist poolelt sõnalt.
Kuidas te kontserdiks valmistute või pärast esinemist lõõgastute? Kõik sõltub sellest, milliste puntidega koos üles astume või kus kohas. Kui olukord lubab, võtan mõnikord väikse õlle, mingit rituaali mul küll ei ole. Tänane õhtu jätkub Hollandi saatkonna vastuvõtul, kust loodan pärast kehakinnitust vaikselt jalga lasta, et jõuda Barcelona-Interi mängu ajaks televiisori ette.
Palju õnne maineka jazziauhinna puhul. Palun jagage oma värskeid emotsioone. Tänan. Esimene reaktsioon oli – vau! Sain ju tänu auhinnale võimaluse teha teles akustilisel kitarril lühike soolokontsert. Seejärel tekkis moment, kui tähelepanu koorem muutus natuke liiga suureks. Aga kokkuvõttes mõjus auhind hästi ja muutis enesekindlamaks. Tänu sellele võtsin esmakordselt elus ette lühikese sooloesinemise. Olin varem esinenud ainult koos bändiga. Olen auhinna üle südamest õnnelik.
Teie tee muusika juurde? Mul oli 12. aastaselt klassivend, kes tavatses raadio saatel kitarri mängida. Tahtsin hirmsasti tema moodi olla ja nii jõudsingi muusika juurde. Väga äge oli mängida “koos” Jimi Hendrixi või Elvis Presleyga. Minu suurimateks mõjutajateks ongi inimesed, kellega koos musitseerin, neile kuulub minu imetlus. Maailmanimedest rääkides – Charlie Mingus näiteks, ka Sly & The Family Stone on väga vinged tegijad, päris palju kuulan Bachi. Ei eelista ühte stiili teistele, meeldib igasugune hea muusika.
On teil suur fonoteek? Millist muusikat kodus kuulate? Mina ei kogu muusikat, aga pojal on tõeliselt suur digitaalne fonoteek. Ta on alles 15, aga muusikat kuulab seinast seinani.
LP või CD? LP sound on kahtlemata soojem ja elavam, selline mõnus vintage. Muusikat nullideks ja ühtedeks lahutades on paratamatu, et selle käigus läheb kaduma ka osa muusika hingest. Samas on digitaalsed helikandjad pagana mugavad ja kõrv harjub nendega ruttu. Igal meediumil on omad head ja vead – võtame näiteks vinüülplaatide krõbina. Mis puhtast helist saab siin rääkida? Ometi tekib LPsid kuulates mulje, et muusikat esitatakse nüüd ja praegu. CDdega on seda feelingut vähem ja MP3 formaadi puhul on see pea olematu.
Lõpetuseks: mis on see meloodiajupp, mis teid mõnikord ette hoiatamata kummitab? (Naerab) Üks Wayne Shorteri meloodia, vist „Unicorn“ on selle nimi, kui ma nüüd ei eksi. Ei ole ma seda kunagi esitanud, õppimisest rääkimata, ometi on see mul pidevalt huulil.
28. aprill 2010, Vene Kultuurikeskus
The Ploctones (Holland)
Efraïm Trujillo – saksofon
Anton Goudsmit – kitarr
Jeroen Vierdag – basskitarr
Martijn Vink – löökriistad
Kaastöö osaleb kriitikakonkursil.
Estonian to English: Estonian Theatre General field: Other Detailed field: Other
Source text - Estonian Tootmise ja loomise vahel
Eesti teater hooaegadel 2005/2006 ja 2006/2007
Madis Kolk
Eesti teatri viimase kahe hooaja üks iseloomustajaid on üha kasvav etendustegevus. Teater laiendab nii oma tegevusperioodi, andmata ei endale ega publikule puhkust ka suvel, samuti avardub seeläbi teatriruum geograafilises mõttes, avastades suvise teatri jaoks üha uusi mängupaiku. Lisaks rikastub Eesti teater uute truppide näol ning mitmed põnevad lavastused on sündinud koguni kutselise ja harrastusteatri ühisprojektide kaudu. Muidugi ei tähenda loetletud aspektid üksnes teatri kvantitatiivset edenemist.
Üks viimasel ajal eriliselt hoogustunud dramaturgiasuundi kõneleb suurenenud huvist Eesti ajaloo ja kultuuriloo vastu. Selle suuna lipulaevaks sai 2004. aasta suvel MTÜ R.A.A.A.M. ning esidramaturgiks Mart Kivastik, kelle koostöös sündinud „Külmetava kunstniku portree” ning järgmisel suvel järgnenud „Põrgu wärk” said pärjatud mitmete auhindadega ning muutsid Eesti kultuuritegelaste elulood armastatuks ka publiku hulgas. Eesti algupärase dramaturgia aktiveerumist ning suurenenud huvi rahvusliku ainese vastu tõdeti võrdluses Läti ja Leeduga ka 2006. aasta sügisel Eestis toimunud Balti Teatrisügisel – festivalitraditsioon, mis oli vahepeal pikaks ajaks katkenud, kuid taaselustati 2005. aastal, sooviga regulaarselt Balti riikide teatrisidemeid edendada. 2006. aasta suvel moodustus Kivastiku kunstnikunäidendeist triloogia – lavale jõudis ka Elmar Kitsest kõnelev „Kits viiuli ja õngega”, kuid loomulikult pole Kivastik ainus selle temaatika käsitleja.
Temaga võrreldavas pool- või „pseudodokumentaalses” võtmes läheneb Eesti kultuuriloole ka Andrus Kivirähk, kes on keskendunud ennekõike teatriajaloo tõlgendustele: „Teatriparadiis”, „Adolf Rühka lühikene elu” ning viimase tööna „Voldemar”, mille peategelaseks Eesti kõrgemale lavakunstikoolile ning seeläbi ka süsteemsemale teatriõppele aluse pannud legendaarne pedagoog ja lavastaja Voldemar Panso. Olgu lisatud, et kool ise tähistab tänavu novembrikuus oma viiekümnendat sünnipäeva. „Voldemari” tõi lavale Merle Karusoo, kes üldjuhul lavastab valmisdramaturgiat harva. Tema põhiline missioon, ja mitte ainult viimaste aastate rahvusliku identiteedi taastugevnemise ajal, vaid juba Nõukogude ajast alates, on olnud reaalsete isikute elulugudel põhinev teater. Kui kahe aasta tagune „Misjonärid” uuris eesti sõdurite saatust 1980-ndate Afganistanis ning tänases Iraagis, siis kaks viimast lavastust – „Täna me ei mängi” ning „Küpsuskirjand 2005” käsitlevad integratsiooniteemat ning Eestimaa venelaste identiteediküsimusi.
Kasvanud huvi algupärase dramaturgia vastu väljendub veel mitmel viisil. 2006. aasta oli kuulutatud „Eesti teatri aastaks”, tähistades sellega saja aasta möödumist meie kutselise teatri sünnist – aastal 1906, mil kaks toonast esindusteatrit: Vanemuine Tartus ning Estonia Tallinnas viisid oma tegevuse professionaalsele alusele. Sel puhul oli terve aasta täidetud erinevate ettevõtmistega, mis Eesti teatrit eriliselt fookusse tõstsid. Nii näiteks oli iga kalendrikuu pühendatud mingile konkreetsele teatrile või teemale (sh suveteater ja teatriharidus) ning igal kuul valmis koostöös Eesti Televisiooniga ka vastavasisuline dokumentaalfilm. Pärnu teater Endla võttis 2006. aastal aga ülesandeks tuua lavale üksnes eesti algupärast dramaturgiat. Samuti märkis algupärandite olulisust 2006. aasta festival „Omadraama”. Nimelt on Eesti riigieelarveliste teatrifestivalide korraldamine nüüdseks monopoliseerunud lavastaja ja dramaturgi Margus Kasterpalu juhitava SA Eesti Teatri Festival kätte ning festivalid toimuvad süsteemi järgi, mille kohaselt üle kahe aasta leiab aset traditsiooniline ülevaatefestival „Draama”, kus eesti teatri paremikku hindab rahvusvaheline žürii, vahepealsetel aastatel korraldatakse aga mingi spetsiifilisem teemafestival: kui aastal 2004 oli selleks festival „Komöödia”, siis 2006. aastal üksnes algupäranditele pühendatud „Omadraama”, toimudes üheaegselt juba eelpoolmainitud Balti Teatrisügisega. Samuti korraldab nimetatud sihtasutus laste- ja noorteteatri festivale ning nii peeti samal aastal ka festivali „Draamake”, kus samuti rahvusvaheline žürii hindas Eesti noorsoole mõeldud lavastusi.
Üks valdkond, mis on viimastel aastatel Eesti teatripilti tuntavalt mõjutanud, on suveteater – nähtus, mis on küll alati olemas olnud, kuid mille roll on käesoleval sajandil eriliselt tõusnud. Suvine teatritegemine on tekitanud ka mitmesugust poleemikat. Tõstatatud on näiteks teema, et kuna suvelavastused on sageli projektipõhised ettevõtmised ning toimuvad väljaspool teatrite põhitööd, siis võtab see näitlejailt ära igasuguse puhkusevõimaluse (loomulikult on osalemine suveprojektides vabatahtlik, kuid konkurents ning publiku nõudmine määravad kaudselt ka tegijate valikuid). Teine etteheide seisnes selles, et suveteater oleks justkui publiku teatrimaitset labastava kergekaalulise kommertsi ametlik aktsepteerimine, kus kunsti ees domineerivad teistsugused kriteeriumid – peaasjalikult toitlustuse ja vabaõhumeelelahutuse abil rahvalt raha välja meelitamine. Sedalaadi süüdistused jäid küll rohkem paari aasta tagusesse aega, mil lisaks suveteatrile nähti eesti rahva teatrimaitset ning turusituatsiooni solkiva kurjajuurena ka muusikalibuumi. Nii nagu muusikal on valutult oma kõrghetke üle elanud, nii tuleb tunnistada ka seda, et juba mitu aastat on pigem just suveteatri raames toimunud julgemad ja ambitsioonikamad teatrikatsetused, samas kui statsionaarne hooajaafišš kipub aeg-ajalt olema alalhoidlikum ja keskpärasemgi.
Samuti ei ole suveteater enam niivõrd projektipõhine, pigem on iga institutsioonilise teatri auasjaks suve jooksul üks kuni kaks lavastust välja tuua. Ja tõepoolest on mitmed olulisemad lavastused sündinud just suviti: näiteks Eesti ühe noorima teatri NO99 tõlgendused „Seitsmest samuraist” Akira Kurosawa filmi ainetel (2005) ning Alfred Jarry avangardiklassikast „Kuningas Ubu” (2006). Samuti Rakvere Teatri ja Endla koostööprojekt „Vargamäe kuningriik” – suurejooneline töötlus Anton Hansen Tammsaare romaanist „Tõde ja õigus”. Paaril viimasel hakkasid just suvelavastuste osalised jõudma üha sagedamini ka teatri aastapreemiate laureaatide või vähemalt nominentide hulka ning alles viimasel suvel võib taas tõdeda, et väga kaalukaid kunstilisi saavutusi teatrisuvi enesega kaasa ei toonud. Pigem annab see aga märku nähtuse „uude faasi” jõudmisest, turu küllastumisest ning nii tegijate kui publiku vahepealsest väsimusest, mitte aga enam eelarvamuslikust hoiakust, et suveteater on a priori kommerts.
Nagu öeldud, on mitmed projektipõhised ettevõtmised saanud end tutvustada ennekõike just suvises kontekstis, kuid mitmed neist on tõusnud ka arvestatavateks etendusasutusteks institutsiooniliste teatrite kõrval. Üks jõulisemaid näiteid on seesama MTÜ R.A.A.A.M., kelle põhiülesandeks Eesti ajaloo ja kultuuriloo ainelised lavastused.. R.A.A.A.M.-il puudub oma trupp, lavajõud kaasatakse iga lavastuse jaoks eraldi, kuid see-eest saadakse osaliselt toetust ka riigieelarvest. Eesti teatri rahastamissüsteem on samuti olnud aastaid üheks poleemika põhjuseks, kuid kokkuvõtlikult võib siiski öelda, et tulenenud on see ennekõike igipõlisest probleemist – vahendeid on alati vähem kui võiks olla –, mitte aga niivõrd süsteemi puudulikkusest. Tõenäoliselt on praeguseks vaibunud arvamused, mida mõne aasta eest aktiivsemalt väljendati, et kui lammutada senitoiminud riigieelarveline repertuaariteatrite süsteem ning juurutada laiemalt projektipõhist rahastamissüsteemi, tagaks see kohati võib-olla suurema paindlikkuse, ega sunniks loominguliselt lähtuma ühe või teise teatrikoosluse püsitrupi huvidest või muudest institutsioonilistest vajadustest. Pigem on suund olnud sinnapoole, et suurendada riiklikku toetust ka nendele truppidele, mis ei kuulu riiklikult prioriteetsete etendusasutuste hulka (mille haldusvormiks on kas riigiasutus, sihtasutus või linnateater). Seda võimaldab viimastel aastatel juurutama hakatud uus rahastamissüsteem, kus finantskalkulatsiooni ühikuks on AITA (arvestuslik inimtööaasta), mille alusel pannakse paika iga teatri uue hooaja tööplaanidele vastav vajalik summa, lähtudes seega mitte enam eelmise hooaja statistikast, mille põhinäitajaks oli publiku hulk.
Praeguse seisuga saavad lisaks riiklikele teatritele püsitoetust veel umbes kümmekond etendusasutust, kelle tegevust saab Kultuuriministeeriumi juurde moodustatud ekspertkomisjoni hinnangul nimetada „rahvuskultuuriliselt oluliseks”. Ennekõike on nendeks kolm kõige staažikamat erateatrit: Von Krahli Teater, VAT Teater ja Theatrum, kuid ka mitmed väiksemad trupid, nende seas ka kaks tantsuagentuuri, mille tegevus on Eesti teatripildis muutunud järjest olulisemaks. Võib veel lisada, et trupid, kes ei saa eelarvelist toetust, saavad küsida oma lavastusprojektidele raha Eesti Kultuurkapitalilt.
Nagu juba öeldud, on üha aktiivsemaks muutunud Eesti tantsuelu. Lisaks mitmežanriteater Vanemuisele ning Rahvusooper Estoniale, kus koos klassikalise balletiga viljeldakse aeg-ajalt ka nüüdistantsu erinevaid ilminguid, on arvestatavaks jõuks muutunud ka kaks suuremat tantsuagentuuri: Kanuti Gildi SAAL ning Sõltumatu Tantsu Ühendus, mis tegelevad nii erinevate tantsulavastuste väljatoomisega, rahvusvaheliste koostööprojektidega kui ka festivalide korraldamisega, millest ulatuslikumaks on Kanuti Gildi SAALi igasuvine Augusti TantsuFestival. Esteetiliste printsiipide poolest võiks riskida üldistusega, et kui Kanuti Gildi SAAL koondab rohkem „kontseptualismi” märksõnaga seonduvaid projekte, siis Sõltumatu Tantsu Ühendus keskendub ennemini klassikalisele, „liikumispõhisele” nüüdistantsule, kuid see ei ole siiski ammendav definitsioon, kuna mõlemad asutused on eeskätt siiski katusorganisatsioonideks väga eripalgelistele ettevõtmistele.
Kuid Eesti teatrielu ei rikasta üksnes üha aktiveeruv tantsuelu, vaid uusi institutsioone sünnib ka muudes teatrivaldkondades. Üheks põnevaimaks on dirigendi Tõnu Kaljuste ellu kutsutud Nargen Opera, kes rajas möödunud suvel endale ka ekstravagantse „väliooperi” Omari Küüni Tallinna lahes asuvale Naissaarele. Ühtpidi raskendab see muidugi publiku ligipääsu (kuigi etendusepaika on korraldatud ka paadiühendus) ning suurendab elitaarsuse aurat, kuid teisalt tõstab ka vaatajaskonna huvi ning täiendab suveteatri keskkondlikku aspekti. Toimumispaiga valik näib üldse olevat ühtaegu nii suvelavastuste lisaväärtuseks kui ka vaatajaskonnale takistavaks asjaoluks: lühikese ajaga on teatritegemise tarbeks kohandatud suur hulk Eesti mõisahooneid, muinaslinnuseid, soid, metsatukki ning muid looduskauneid paiku.
Kõik eelöeldu ei tähenda, nagu koondunuks põnevaim osa viimase kahe hooaja Eesti teatrist vaid mainstreami äärealadele: suveteatrite keskkonnaeksperimentidesse, väiketeatrite avangardkatsetustesse või tantsuteatrisse, pigem näitab see kõik lihtsalt avarduvat teatrikäsitlust. Kuid olgugi et institutsionaalset teatrisüsteemi on ikka ja alati süüdistatud publiku meelitamises kergekaalulise repertuaariga, ei saa siiski öelda, et kommertstendentsid eriliselt võimust võtaksid. Ühelt poolt näitab (kasvava elatustasemga) publiku arv üha suurenevat huvi nii teatri kui ka kultuuri vastu laiemalt – nüüd leitakse või võetakse selleks juba rohkem aega, kui mõned aastad tagasi. Teisalt ei lase teatrimaastiku äärealade pakutav konkurents ka peavooluteatril rahulduda keskpärase dramaturgiaga, sest publik (nii rohkem kui vähem maksujõuline) on hakanud juba väärtustama ka nõudlikumat ja ambitsioonikamat repertuaari ning lavakeelt. Klassikaline vaidlusküsimus, kas tegemist on prestiiži või sisulise kultuurihuvi kasvuga, ei olegi antud juhul kõige olulisem, sest aktiivne nõudluse ja pakkumise dialoog on juhtinud siiski ka märkimisväärsete lavaliste tulemusteni.
Eesti riigiteatreid on keeruline ja ka mõttetu omavahel võrrelda, sest väikelinnade teatrid peavad lisaks oma puhtalt kunstilistele ambitsioonidele arvestama ka spetsiifikaga, mida dikteerib just konkreetne kohalik publik oma harjumuste ja maitse-eelistustega. Pealinna teatripilti on oluliselt rikastanud ühe uue teatri sünd: kaks aastat tagasi loodud NO99, mida juhivad lavastaja Tiit Ojasoo ning kunstnik Ene-Liis Semper, kes on ehk Eesti teatritegijaist kõige selgemini manifesteerinud oma kompromissitust massimeelelahutusega ning oma huvi ennekõike ühiskonnaprobleemide ning teatrispetsiifika provokatiivsete lavaliste uurimisvahendite vastu. Lisaks ülalmainitud avangardiklassikale on nende kahe viimase hooaja kõmulisimad lavastused veel ka „Nafta!” – hoiatuslavastus loodusvarade peatse lõppemise teemadel ning „GEP ehk gorjatšije estonskije parni”, mis otsib intrigeerival viisil väljapääsu Eesti rahva negatiivsest iibest. Asjaolu, et viimane esietendus peaaegu vahetult pärast tänavusi aprillirahutusi Pronkssõduri ümber, lisas lavastuse kogumõjule veelgi teravust.
Kui vahepealsetel aastatel tundus, et psühholoogilise teatri lipulaev Tallinna Linnateater Elmo Nüganeni juhtimisel on mõningases väsimus- või puhkeseisundis, siis viimased kaks hooaega on näidanud ka sealset uut loomepuhangut, seda samuti just Eesti klassika kaudu: 2005. aastal tõi Nüganen lavale Tammsaare „Tõe ja õiguse” teine osa, mis oli iseenesest huvitav klassikatõlgendus, kui lavastusena jäi üldises teatripildis vastsündinud NO99 ning R.A.A.A.M.-i uuslavastuste varju. Seevastu möödunud kevadel lavale jõudnud „Tõe ja õiguse” neljas osa (pealkirjaga „Karin. Indrek. Tõde ja õigus. 4.”), pälvis nii parima lavastuse kui ka parima naispeaosa ja naiskõrvalosa preemiad.
Vahest rohkem kui kunagi varem on hetkel tegemist teatrisituatsiooniga, kus vaatamist on igale maitsele ning ka repertuaari väärtuslikuma poole pealt ei saa selgelt eristada üht või teist hetketrendi, mida eelmisel kümnendil on kord seostatud Priit Pedajase, kord Elmo Nüganeni, kord meie seast nüüdseks lahkunud Mati Undi nimega. Kunstilisi saavutusi, mida hindavad nii kriitikud kui ka publik, sünnib nii teatrimaastiku institutsionaalsest keskmest kui ka äärealadelt. Kvantiteedi pidev kasv võib aga varem või hiljem tingida taas mõningase üleküllastuse ja sellest tuleneva vajaduse akumuleerimispausi järele, otsimaks keskteed tootmise ja loomise vahel, mis on juba täheldatav suveteatri puhul. Mõningast tendentsi sinnapoole näitab ka publiku huvi kasv kammerlikuma ja intiimsema teatrikeele suhtes.
Madis Kolk on teatrikriitik ning kultuuriajakirja Teater. Muusika. Kino peatoimetaja.
Translation - English Between production and creation
Estonian Theatre in Seasons 2005/2006 and 2006/2007
Madis Kolk
Speaking of the past two seasons in Estonian theatre, the growing number of performances is one feature, illustrating the period. Another is the extended playing season – theatre does not rest in summer and it does not let the audience do so. But theatre has expanded also geographically, with new scenes for summer performances. Yet another peculiarity is the abundance of new companies, whereas a number of intriguing plays were brought on stage as joint projects of professional and amateur theatres. Naturally, these aspects do not indicate only quantitative developments (in theatre).
One of the latest dramaturgical tendencies shows growing interest towards Estonian history and cultural heritage. In summer 2004, a non-profit association MTÜ R.A.A.A.M became the flagship of the trend together with Mart Kivastik as the leading playwright. Their first cooperations – “Portrait of a Freezing Artist” („Külmetava kunstniku portree”), followed next summer by “Hell” („Põrgu wärk”) – were crowned with several awards and made the audience love the biographies of Estonian cultural figures. The rebirth of Estonian original dramaturgy and increased interest towards national subject matter stood out also in comparison with Latvia and Lithuania in autumn 2006, when the Baltic Theatre Festival was held in Tallinn. This long-interrupted tradition was revived in 2005 to promote the relations between Baltic theatres on a regular basis. In summer 2006, the artist-plays by Kivastik concluded a trilogy, when “Mr. Kits, a Violin and a Fishing Rod” („Kits viiuli ja õngega”), telling the story of Elmar Kits, was staged. Naturally, Kivastik is not the only playwright interested in that kind of subject-matter.
In a quasi or pseudo-documental key, comparable with Kivastik, Estonian cultural heritage was also approached by Andrus Kivirähk, who focused primarily on the interpretations of theatre-history: “Theatre Paradise” („Teatriparadiis”), “The Short Life of Adolf Rühka” („Adolf Rühka lühikene elu”) and his last play “Voldemar” with Voldemar Panso – Estonian theatre history incarnated, the founder of Estonian Drama School and thereby of systematic theatre studies, a legendary pedagogue and stage director – as the title character. As a matter of fact, the drama school will celebrate its fiftieth anniversary in November this year. “Voldemar” was staged by Merle Karusoo, who seldom produces ready-made dramaturgy. Her core mission, not only during the reinforcement years of our national identity but already in the Soviet period, has been the making of theatre basing on the biographies of real persons. “The Missionaries” („Misjonärid”), staged two years ago, explored the life of Estonian warriors in Afghanistan in the 1980’s and in Iraq today, whereas her two last productions – “Today We Shall not Play” („Täna me ei mängi”) and “The Graduation Essay 2005” („Küpsuskirjand 2005”) discuss the topic of national integration and the identity issues of Estonian Russians.
Grown interest towards original dramaturgy was expressed yet in many other ways. The year 2006 was named “The Year of Estonian Theatre”, thus celebrating the 100th anniversary of Estonian professional theatre – in 1906 our two most representational theatres: the Vanemuine in Tartu and the Estonia in Tallinn, became professional theatres. To celebrate the jubilee, the year was filled with events focusing on Estonian theatre. This way, for instance, each calendar month was dedicated to one theatre or topic (incl. summer theatre and drama education) and in cooperation with Estonian Television relevant documentaries were shot every month. The Pärnu Endla Theatre assumed the task of staging only Estonian original dramaturgy in 2006. The significance of original dramaturgy was also highlighted at the Estonian Theatre Festival OmaDRAAMA in 2006. The organization of state-budget-funded theatre festivals is the task of the Estonian Theatre Festival Foundation, lead by stage director and playwright Margus Kasterpalu and festivals are held according to an established system. The regular review festival Draama with an international panel rating the cream of Estonian theatre is held in every two years; in between, more specific festivals are held. In 2004 a Comedy festival was held, in 2006 the OmaDRAAMA Festival was held simultaneously with the above-mentioned Baltic Theatre Autumn. The foundation also organises children and youth theatre festivals; this way the Draamake Festival was held in the same year, with an international panel rating stage productions for Estonian youth.
One sphere with considerable impact on Estonian theatre is summer theatre – a phenomenon that has always existed, but which role has increased noticeably in this century. Summer theatre has also triggered various debates. For instance, an issue has been raised that summer productions as project-based events taking place outside the principal working time deprive the actors of their annual holidays (involvement in summer projects is voluntary, of course, but the choices of the actors depend, though indirectly, on mutual competition and the demand of the audience). Other murmurs were about official acceptance of light-weight commercial productions that vulgarize the taste of the audience and let other criteria like fishing money from the audience with open-air catering and entertainment override art. True, such accusations flew a couple of years ago, when in addition to summer theatre the boom of musicals was seen as the root of evil, spoiling the market and the taste of the audience. Like the upsurge of musicals has cooled down, so have more daring and ambitious theatrical experiments began to take place in summer, while the stationary seasonal playbills tend to be more conservative, even mediocre.
Today, summer theatre is no longer solely project-based. Instead, it has become a matter of reputation for institutional theatres to come out with one-two summer productions annually. This way a number of significant performances were born: for instance, interpretations by one of the youngest Estonian theatres the NO99 of Akira Kurosawa’s “Seven Samurais” (2005) and “King Ubu” by Alfred Jarry from classical avant-garde repertoire (2006), but also the joint project of the Rakvere and the Endla theatres –„The Kingdom of Vargamäe” (“Vargamäe kuningriik”) – a spectacular interpretation of “Truth and Justice”, a novel by Estonian literary classic Anton Hansen Tammsaare. In the past years, several members of the cast of summer productions became nominees or laureates of annual theatre awards, although this summer can be summed up as “nothing special” – a sign of reaching a new phase, where the market is saturated and both – the doers and the viewers are somewhat tired, but certainly not of the domination of a biased opinion, according to which summer theatre is a priori commerce.
A number of project-based institutions were born in summer. Some of them have become well-established stage institutions working side by side with professional theatres. One of the most viable examples is the above-mentioned MTÜ R.A.A.A.M. with plays on Estonian history and culture as their main production. The R.A.A.A.M. does not have a fixed company; actors are engaged on production-basis. In return, the association is partially funded from state budget. The system of financing Estonian theatres has created debates for years. This, of course, is caused by the everlasting problem – means are always scarcer than needs – and not by the faultiness of the system. The opinions quite openly expressed some years ago – that the liquidation of state-budget-funded system of repertoire-theatres and the introduction of project-based financing might result in greater flexibility and avoid looking after the creative interests of fixed companies or other institutional needs only – have hopefully died down by now. Actually, quite opposite trends can be noticed: state support is given also to companies not belonging to first priority theatrical institutions (administrative forms: state agency, foundation or municipal theatre). This is possible due to a recently introduced financing system with AITA (estimated man-year) as the unit of financial calculations, on which basis amounts corresponding to each theatre’s new season work schedule are calculated, this way proceeding no longer from last season’s statistics with the number of audience as the main indicator.
Today, in addition to national theatres, fixed support is also given to app. ten performing institutions, which activities, according to the committee of experts working at the Ministry of Culture, are “important in terms of national culture”. First come our three oldest private theatres: the Von Krahl Theatre, the VAT Theatre and the Theatrum, but also several smaller companies belong among them, including two dance agencies with increasing importance in Estonian theatre landscape. The companies not receiving budgetary support can ask money for stage projects from Cultural Endowment of Estonia.
Dance theatre has become more active in Estonia. In addition to multi-genre theatres the Vanemuine and the Estonian National Opera, where different phenomena of modern dance are cultivated alongside with classical ballet from time to time, two dance agencies have popped up: the Kanuti Gildi SAAL and the Independent Association of Dance, producing various dance performances, being engaged in international cooperation projects and organising festivals, one of the most noteworthy being the August Dance Festival, organised every summer by the Kanuti Gildi SAAL. In terms of aesthetical principles, a generalization can be made, that the Kanuti Gildi SAAL organizes projects fitting under the term “conceptualism”, while the Independent Association of Dance is more focused on classical, “movement-based” modern dance. However, this definition is not comprehensive, as both institutions are more like umbrella organizations for different projects.
In addition to dance, Estonian theatre has produced fascinating offspring also in other spheres. Take, for instance, the Nargen Opera, established by the conductor Tõnu Kaljuste, who built an extravagant “open-air opera house” – Omari Küün/Omar’s Barn – for his productions on the island of Naissaar last year. On the one hand, this makes access more difficult (although boats commute between Tallinn and Naissaar), thereby augmenting the elitist aura of the place, on the other hand this raises the interest of the audience and supplements the environmental aspect of summer theatre in general. The selection of venues for summer productions gives extra value to the productions and functions as a hindrance to the audience: in a short time, a number of manor houses, ancient citadels, bogs, groves and other scenic places have become the places of making theatre.
All this does not mean that the most thrilling part of Estonian theatre has transferred from mainstream to periphery in the past two years – into the environmental experiments of summer theatre, to the avant-garde experiments of small theatres and to dance theatres. On the contrary – this is the example of an expanded approach to theatre as such. And although institutional theatre has always been blamed of attracting the audience with light-weight repertoire, the prevailing of commercial tendencies cannot be noticed. On the one hand, the audience (people with improving living standard) numbers show growing interest towards theatre and culture in general – people find or take more time for that than they used to some years ago. On the other hand, competition from the periphery does not let mainstream theatre satisfy with mediocre dramaturgy, because the audience (people more and less solvent) have started to value more demanding and ambitious repertoire and stage language. The classical question, whether this is a matter of prestige or genuine interest in culture, is irrelevant, as this active dialogue between demand and offer has lead to significant results on stage.
It is difficult and pointless to compare Estonian national theatres, because theatres in small towns must, in addition to own ambitions, keep in mind also the specific expectations of local audience, all their habits and preferences. Tallinn theatre landscape is dressed by the birth of a new theatre: the NO99, established two years ago and lead by stage director Tiit Ojasoo and artist Ene-Liis Semper, who have manifested – perhaps most explicitly – their uncompromising attitude towards mass entertainment and their interest in social problems and provocative theatrical means. In addition to the two classical avant-garde plays mentioned above, their sensational productions in the past two years include “Oil!”, warning the audience of the depletion of natural resources and “GEP or gorjatšije estonskije parni”, looking for a solution to the problem of negative population growth of the Estonians in a provocative manner. The fact that the premiere took place immediately after the April turmoil of the Bronze Soldier certainly added zest to the production.
While in the meantime it seemed as if the flagship of Estonian psychological theatre – the Tallinn City Theatre, lead by Elmo Nüganen, had lost its cutting edge, the last two seasons have demonstrated a new creative outburst, again with the help of Estonian classics: in 2005 Nüganen staged the second part of “Truth and Justice” by Tammsaare – a fascinating interpretation of classical subject matter somewhat outshone by the innovative performances of the newborns NO99 and R.A.A.A.M.. However, the fourth part of “Truth and Justice”, staged last spring (titled “Karin. Indrek. Truth and Justice. 4.”) earned the awards of the best stage performance, the best leading female role and the best female side role.
Today, more than ever, a situation has developed in Estonian theatre, where there is something for every taste and no particular trends can be distinguished on the best side of repertoire, associated in the last decade with names like Priit Pedajas, Elmo Nüganen and the late Mati Unt. Artistic achievements appreciated equally by the critics and the audience are born in mainstream theatre and in the outskirts. Yet, increasing quantities may, sooner or later, cause some overabundance and a need for an accumulation pause to search for the middle road between production and creation, a tendency already visible in summer theatre. To some extent, this can be prognosticated by the already increasing interest of the audience towards more personal and intimate stage language.
Madis Kolk is Estonian theatre reviewer and editor-in-chief of culture monthly Theatre. Music. Cinema.
English to Estonian: Lecture by Margaret Thatcher General field: Social Sciences Detailed field: Government / Politics
Source text - English What's wrong with politics
Criticism of politics is no new thing. Literature abounds with it.
In Shakespeare we find the comment of King Lear:
‘Get thee glass eyes;
‘And, like a scurvy politician, seem
‘To see the things thou dost not.’
Richard Sheridan, reputed to have made one of the greatest speeches the House of Commons has ever heard (it lasted 5 hours and 40 minutes), commented that ‘conscience has no more to do with gallantry than it has with politics’. Anatole France was perhaps the most scathing: ‘I am not so devoid of all talents as to occupy myself with politics.’
Nor have political leaders escaped criticism:
‘Disraeli unites the maximum of Parliamentary cleverness with the minimum of statesmanlike capacity. No one ever dreams to have him lead. He belongs not to the bees but to the wasps and the butterflies of public life. He can sting and sparkle but he cannot work. His place in the arena is marked and ticketed for ever.’
This from the Controller of the Stationery Office, in 1853, quoted in The Statesman by Henry Taylor.
There is no need to remind you how utterly wrong that judgment was.
There are even some things that have improved over the years. Bribery and corruption, which have now gone, used to be rampant. The votes of electors were purchased at a high price. The famous Lord Shaftesbury when he was Lord Ashley, spent £15,600 on successfully winning Dorset in 1831. It is interesting to note that £12,000 of this went to public houses and inns for the refreshment of the people. And this when gin was a penny a glass! Some forty years before, Lord Penrhyn spent £50,000 on his campaign—and then lost!
But we can't dismiss the present criticisms as easily as that. The dissatisfaction with politics runs too deep both here and abroad. People have come to doubt the future of the democratic system and its institutions. They distrust the politicians and have little faith in the future.[fo 1]
Why the present distrust?
Let us try to assess how and why we have reached this pass. What is the explanation? Broadly speaking I think we have not yet assimilated many of the changes that have come about in the past thirty to forty years.
First, I don't think we realise sufficiently how new our present democratic system is. We still have comparatively little experience of the effect of the universal franchise which didn't come until 1928. And the first election in this country which was fought on the principle of one person one vote was in 1950. So we are still in the early stages of dealing with the problems and opportunities presented by everyone having a vote.
Secondly, this and other factors have led to a different party political structure. There is now little room for independent members and the controversies which formerly took place outside the parties on a large number of measures now have to take place inside. There is, and has to be room for a variety of opinions on certain topics within the broad general principles on which each party is based.
Thirdly, from the party political structure has risen the detailed programme which is placed before the electorate. Return to power on such a programme has led to a new doctrine that the party in power has a mandate to carry out everything in its manifesto. I myself doubt whether the voters really are endorsing each and every particular when they return a government to power.
This modern practice of an election programme has, I believe, influenced the attitudes of some electors; all too often one is now asked ‘what are you going to do for me?’, implying that the programme is a series of promises in return for votes. All this has led to a curious relationship between elector and elected. If the elector suspects the politician of making promises simply to get his vote, he despises him, but if the promises are not forthcoming he may reject him. I believe that parties and elections are about more than rival lists of miscellaneous promises—indeed, if they were not, democracy would scarcely be worth preserving.
Fourthly, the extensive and all-pervading development of the welfare state is also comparatively new, not only here but in other countries as well. You will recollect that one of the four great freedoms in President Roosevelt's wartime declaration was ‘freedom from want.’ Since then in the Western world there has been a series of measures designed to give greater security. I think it would be true to say that there is no longer a struggle to achieve a basic security. Further, we have a complete new generation[fo 2] whose whole life has been lived against the background of the welfare state. These developments must have had a great effect on the outlook and approach of our people even if we cannot yet assess it properly.
Fifthly, one of the effects of the rapid spread of higher education has been to equip people to criticise and question almost everything. Some of them seem to have stopped there instead of going on to the next stage which is to arrive at new beliefs or to reaffirm old ones. You will perhaps remember seeing in the press the report that the student leader Daniel Cohn-Bendit has been awarded a degree on the result of his past work. His examiners said that he had posed a series of most intelligent questions. Significant? I would have been happier had he also found a series of intelligent answers.
Sixthly, we have far more information about events than ever before and since the advent of television, news is presented much more vividly. It is much more difficult to ignore situations which you have seen on film with your own eyes than if you had merely read about them, perhaps skimming the page rather hurriedly. Television is not merely one extra means of communication, it is a medium which because of the way it presents things is radically influencing the judgments we have to make about events and about people, including politicians.
Seventhly, our innate international idealism has received many nasty shocks. Many of our people long to believe that if representatives of all nations get together dispassionately to discuss burning international problems, providence and goodwill will guide them to wise and just conclusions, and peace and international law and order will thereby be secured. But in practice a number of nations vote not according to right or wrong even when it is a clear case to us, but according to their national expediencies. And some of the speeches and propaganda to explain blatant actions would make the angels weep as well as the electorate.
All of these things are a partial explanation of the disillusion and disbelief we encounter today. The changes have been tremendous and I am not surprised that the whole system is under cross-examination. I welcome healthy scepticism and questioning. It is our job continually to retest old assumptions and to seek new ideas. But we must not try to find one unalterable answer that will solve all our problems for none can exist.
You may know the story of the soldier of fortune who once asked the Sphinx to reveal the divine wisdom of the ages in one sentence, and the Sphinx said ‘Don't expect too much.’[fo 3]
In that spirit and against the background I have sketched, let us try to analyse what has gone wrong.
The great mistake—too much government
I believe that the great mistake of the last few years has been for the government to provide or to legislate for almost everything. Part of this policy has its roots in the plans for reconstruction in the postwar period when governments assumed all kinds of new obligations. The policies may have been warranted at the time but they have gone far further than was intended or is advisable. During our own early and middle period of government we were concerned to set the framework in which people could achieve their own standards for themselves, subject always to a basic standard. But it has often seemed to me that from the early 1960s the emphasis in politics shifted. At about that time ‘growth’ became the key political word. If resources grew by X per cent per annum this would provide the extra money needed for the government to make further provision. The doctrine found favour at the time and we had a bit of a contest between the parties about the highest possible growth rate. Four per cent or more. But the result was that for the time being the emphasis in political debate ceased to be about people and became about economics. Plans were made to achieve a 4 per cent growth rate. Then came the present government with a bigger plan and socialist ideas about its implementation, that is to say if people didn't conform to the plan, they had to be compelled to. Hence compulsion on Prices and Incomes policy and with it the totally unacceptable notion that the government shall have the power to fix which wages and salaries should increase.
We started off with a wish on the part of the people for more government intervention in certain spheres. This was met. But there came a time when the amount of intervention got so great that it could no longer be exercised in practice by government but only by more and more officials or bureaucrats. Now it is difficult if not impossible for people to get at the official making the decision and so paradoxically although the degree of intervention is greater, the government has become more and more remote from the people. The present result of the democratic process has therefore been an increasing authoritarianism.
During July the Daily Telegraph published a rather interesting poll which showed how people were reacting against this rule of impersonal authority. The question was ‘In your opinion or not do people like yourselves have enough say or not in the way the government runs the country (68 per cent not enough), the[fo 4] services provided by the nationalised industries (67 per cent not enough), the way local authorities handle things (64 per cent not enough—note this rather high figure; people don't like remote local authorities any more than they like remote governments).’
Recently more and more feature articles have been written and speeches made about involving people more closely with decisions of the government and enabling them to participate in some of those decisions.
But the way to get personal involvement and participation is not for people to take part in more and more government decisions but to make the government reduce the area of decision over which it presides and consequently leave the private citizen to ‘participate’, if that be the fashionable word, by making more of his own decisions. What we need now is a far greater degree of personal responsibility and decision, far more independence from the government, and a comparative reduction in the role of government.
These beliefs have important implications for policy.
Prices and incomes
First Prices and Incomes policy. The most effective prices policy has not come by controlling prices by the government, through the Prices and Incomes Board, but through the Conservative way of seeing that competition flourishes. There have been far more price cuts in the supermarkets than in the nationalised industries. This shows the difference between the government doing the job itself and the government creating the conditions under which prices will be kept down through effective competition.
On the Incomes side, there seemed to be some confusion in the minds of the electorate about where the parties stood. This was not surprising in the early days because a number of speeches and documents from both sides of the House showed a certain similarity. For example, here are four separate quotations—two from the Labour Government and two from our period of office. They are almost indistinguishable.
1. ‘Increases in the general level of wage rates must be related to increased productivity due to increased efficiency and effort.’ (White Paper on Employment Policy, 1944)
2. ‘It is essential therefore that there should be no further general increase in the level of personal incomes without at least a corresponding increase in the volume of production.’ (Sir Stafford Cripps, 1948)[fo 5]
3. ‘The Government's policy is to promote a faster rate of economic growth ... But the policy will be put in jeopardy if money incomes rise faster than the volume of national production.’ (Para. 1 of Incomes Policy, The Next Step, Cmnd 1626, February 1962)
4. ‘... the major objectives of national policy must be ... to raise productivity and efficiency so that real national output can increase and so keep increases in wages, salaries and other forms of income in line with this increase.’ (Schedule 2, Prices and Incomes Act, 1966) All of these quotes express general economic propositions, but the policies which flowed from those propositions were very different. We rejected from the outset the use of compulsion. This was absolutely right. The role of the government is not to control each and every salary that is paid. It has no means of measuring the correct amount. Moreover, having to secure the state's approval before one increases the pay of an employee is repugnant to most of us.
There is another aspect of the way in which Incomes policy is now operated to which I must draw attention. We now put so much emphasis on the control of incomes that we have too little regard for the essential role of government which is the control of money supply and management of demand. Greater attention to this role and less to the outward detailed control would have achieved more for the economy. It would mean, of course, that the government had to exercise itself some of the disciplines on expenditure it is so anxious to impose on others. It would mean that expenditure in the vast public sector would not have to be greater than the amount which could be financed out of taxation plus genuine saving. For a number of years some expenditure has been financed by what amounts to printing the money. There is nothing laissez-faire or old-fashioned about the views I have expressed. It is a modern view of the role the government should play now, arising from the mistakes of the past, the results of which we are experiencing today.
Tax and the social services
The second policy implication concerns taxation and the social services. It is no accident that the Conservative Party has been one which has reduced the rates of taxation. The decisions have not been a haphazard set of expediencies, or merely economic decisions to meet the needs of the moment. They have stemmed[fo 6] from the real belief that government intervention and control tends to reduce the role of the individual, his importance and the desirability that he should be primarily responsible for his own future. When it comes to the development of the social services, the policy must mean that people should be encouraged if necessary by taxation incentives to make increasing provision for themselves out of their own resources. The basic standards through the state would remain as a foundation for extra private provision. Such a policy would have the advantage that the government could concentrate on providing things which the citizen can't. Hospitals are one specific example.
The other day I came across a quotation which you will find difficult to place.
‘Such a plan as this was bound to be drastic and to express nothing less than a new pattern ... (for the hospitals of this country) ... Now that we have it, we must see that it lives. As I have said before it is a plan which has hands and feet. It walks and it works. It is not a static conception stated once and for all but something which is intended to live and to be dynamic ... My Ministry will constantly be carrying this review forward so that there will always be ten years work definitely projected ahead.’ (Hansard, 4th June 1962, Col. 153.)
No, it doesn't come from Harold Wilson. It is not about our enormous overall plan, but a very limited plan in a small area in which the government could make a distinctive contribution. It was Enoch Powell introducing his ten-year hospital plan in the House of Commons on 4th June 1962.
Independence from the state
To return to the personal theme, if we accept the need for increasing responsibility for self and family it means that we must stop approaching things in an atmosphere of restriction. There is nothing wrong in people wanting larger incomes. It would seem a worthy objective for men and women to wish to raise the standard of living for their families and to give them greater opportunities than they themselves had. I wish more people would do it. We should then have fewer saying ‘the state must do it.’ What is wrong is that people should want more without giving anything in return. The condition precedent to high wages and high salaries is hard work. This is a quite different and much more stimulating approach than one of keeping down incomes.
Doubtless there will be accusers that we are only interested in[fo 7] more money. This just is not so. Money is not an end in itself. It enables one to live the kind of life of one's own choosing. Some will prefer to put a large amount to raising material standards, others will pursue music, the arts, the cultures, others will use their money to help those here and overseas about whose needs they feel strongly and do not let us underestimate the amount of hard earned cash that this nation gives voluntarily to worthy causes. The point is that even the Good Samaritan had to have the money to help, otherwise he too would have had to pass on the other side. In choice of way of life J. S. Mill's views are as relevant as ever.
‘The only freedom which deserves the name is that of pursuing our own good in our own way so long as we do not deprive others of theirs, or impede their efforts to obtain it ... Mankind are greater gainers by suffering each other to live as seems good to themselves than by compelling each to live as seems good to the rest.’
These policies have one further important implication. Together they succeed at the same time in giving people a measure of independence from the state—and who wants a people dependent on the state and turning to the state for their every need—also they succeed in drawing power away from governments and diffusing it more widely among people and non-governmented institutions.
The problem of size
The second mistake politics have made at present is in some ways related to the first one. We have become bewitched with the idea of size.
As a result people no longer feel important in the scheme of things. They have the impression that everything has become so big, so organised, so standardised and governmentalised that there is no room for the individual, his talents, his requirements or his wishes. He no longer counts.
It is not difficult to see how this feeling has come about. In industry the merits of size have been extolled for some years now and too little attention given to its demerits. Size brings great problems. One of the most important is the problem of making and communicating decisions. The task of decision tends to be concentrated at the top, and fewer people get used to weighing up a problem, taking a decision, sticking to it and carrying the consequences. The buck is passed. But even after a decision has been made, there is the problem of communicating it to those who have to carry it out in such a way that it is understood, and they are[fo 8] made to feel a part of the team. In a large-scale organisation, whether government, local government or industry, failure to do this can lead to large-scale mistakes, large-scale confusion and large-scale resentment. These problems, can, and must be, overcome, but all too often they are not.
Government agencies and the public
The third mistake is that people feel they don't count when they try to get something done through government agencies.
Consider our relations with government departments. We start as a birth certificate; attract a maternity grant; give rise to a tax allowance and possibly a family allowance; receive a national health number when registered with a doctor; go to one or more schools where educational records are kept; apply for an educational grant; get a job; start paying national insurance and tax; take out a television and a driving licence; buy a house with a mortgage; pay rates; buy a few premium bonds; take out life assurance; purchase some shares; get married; start the whole thing over again; receive a pension and become a death certificate and death grant, and the subject of a file in the Estate Duty Office! Every one of these incidents will require a form or give rise to some questions, or be recorded in some local or national government office. The amount of information collected in the various departments must be fabulous. Small wonder that life really does seem like ‘one damned form after another.’
A good deal of this form-filling will have to continue but I think it time to reassert a right to privacy. Ministers will have to look at this aspect in deciding how to administer their policies. There is a tendency on the part of some politicians to suggest that with the advent of computers all this information should be centralised and stored on magnetic tape. They argue that this would be time-saving and more efficient. Possibly it would; but other and more important things would be at stake. There would be produced for the first time a personal dossier about each person, on which everything would be recorded. In my view this would place far too much power in the hands of the state over the individual. In the USA there is a Congressional enquiry sitting on this very point because politicians there have recognised the far-reaching dangers of such a record.
Too much reliance on statistics, too little on judgment
Fourthly, I believe that there is too great a reliance on statistical forecasts; too little on judgment.
We all know the old one about lies, damned lies and statistics,[fo 9] and I do not wish to condemn statistics out of hand. Those who prepare them are well aware of their limitations. Those who use them are not so scrupulous.
Recently the economic forecasts have been far more optimistic than the events which happened. The balance of payments predictions have been wrong again and again.
For example, in February this year the National Institute of Economic and Social Research forecast predicted a surplus of £100m. in the second half of this year. In August they predicted a deficit of £600m. for the whole of this year, but a surplus of £250m. next year.
They commented, ‘The balance of payments forecast taken year by year look a lot worse than previously estimated, but the difference is largely one of timing—with the movement into surplus coming later, and with a still large rate of improvement.’
The truth is that statistical results do not displace the need for judgment, they increase it. The figures can be no better than the assumptions on which they are based and these could vary greatly. In addition, the unknown factor which, by its very nature is incapable of evaluation, may well be the determining one.
The party political system
Fifthly, we have not yet appreciated or used fully the virtues of our party political system. The essential characteristic of the British Constitutional system is not that there is an alternative personality but that there is an alternative policy and a whole alternative government ready to take office. As a result we have always had an Opposition to act as a focus of criticism against the government. We have therefore not suffered the fate of countries which have had a ‘consensus’ or central government, without an official opposition. This was one of the causes of trouble in Germany. Nor do we have the American system, which as far as Presidential campaigns go, appears to have become almost completely one of personalities.
There are dangers in consensus; it could be an attempt to satisfy people holding no particular views about anything. It seems more important to have a philosophy and policy which because they are good appeal to sufficient people to secure a majority.
A short time ago when speaking to a university audience and stressing the theme of second responsibility and independence a young undergraduate came to me and said ‘I had no idea there was such a clear alternative.’ He found the idea challenging and[fo 10] infinitely more effective than one in which everyone virtually expects their MP or the government to solve their problems. The Conservative creed has never offered a life of ease without effort. Democracy is not for such people. Self-government is for those men and women who have learned to govern themselves.
No great party can survive except on the basis of firm beliefs about what it wants to do. It is not enough to have reluctant support. We want people's enthusiasm as well.
Translation - Estonian Mis on lahti poliitikaga?
Poliitika kritiseerimine ei ole uus nähtus. Kirjandusest on võtta hulganisti sellekohaseid näiteid.
Shakespeare'i loomingust leiame Kuningas Lear'i sõnad:
"Klaassilmad võta
ja teeskle nagu paadund sepitseja,
et näed sa, mida pole."
Richard Sheridan, kes esines Parlamendi alamkojas väidetavalt parima kõnega, mida seal kunagi kuuldud (kestvus 5 tundi ja 40 minutit), ütles: "Südametunnistusel on vaprusega sama vähe pistmist kui poliitikaga." Kõige armutum on olnud küllap Anatole France: "Ma ei ole sedavõrd andetu, et peaksin minema poliitikasse."
Kriitikast pole pääsenud ka poliitilised liidrid:
"Disraelis kohtub ülim parlamentaarne tarkus minimaalse riigimehelikkusega. Mõte temast kui juhist ei tule kellelegi pähe. Ta kuulub mitte avaliku elu mesilaste, vaid vapsikute ja liblikate kilda. Ta oskab nõelata ja särada, aga töötada mitte. Tema koht areenil on igaveseks märgistatud ja määratud."
Ülaltoodud seisukohta väljendas 1853. aastal Patendiameti audiitor, teda tsiteeris päevalehes The Statesman Henry Taylor.
Pole mõtet meenutada, kui üdini vale hinnang see oli.
Aga mõned asjad on aastatega ka paranenud. Altkäemaks ja korruptsioon, mis on tänaseks kadunud, oli kunagi ohjeldamatu. Valijate hääli osteti suurte summade eest. Kuulus Lord Shaftesbury, toona veel Lord Ashley, kulutas valimisvõidu saavutamiseks Dorsetis 1831. aastal £15,600. On huvitav märkida, et £12,000 sellest kulus inimeste jootmiseks ja söötmiseks kõrtsides ja pubides. Ja seda ajal, kui džinni eest küsiti penn klaasist! Ligi nelikümmend aastat varem kulutas Lord Penrhyn oma kampaaniaks £50,000—ja kaotas!
Ometi ei saa praegusest kriitikast niisama lihtsalt mööda vaadata. Selleks on rahulolematus poliitikaga nii siin kui mujal liiga suur. Inimesed on löönud kahtlema demokraatliku süsteemi ja selle institutsioonide tulevikus. Nad umbusaldavad poliitikuid ja nende usk homsesse on nõrk.
MILLEST SELLINE USALDAMATUS?
Katsugem hinnata, miks ja kuidas me sellesse punkti oleme jõudnud. Kuidas seda seletada? Üldjoontes arvan, et meil pole seni õnnestunud assimileerda mitmeid viimase 30-40 aasta jooksul toimunud muudatusi.
Esiteks arvan, et me ei mõista piisavalt, kuivõrd noor on praegune demokraatlik süsteem. Tänase seisuga on meil veel suhteliselt vähe kogemusi üleüldise valimisõigusega, mis jõustus alles 1928. aastal. Ja esimesed valimised siin riigis, mis peeti põhimõttel "üks valija, üks hääl", toimusid 1950. Seega teeme alles esimesi samme kohanemisel probleemide ja võimalustega, mida toob kaasa üleüldine hääleõigus.
Teiseks. See pluss muud faktorid on tekitanud uue parteipoliitilise struktuuri. Iseseisvatel liikmetel on vähem ruumi. Seega vastuolud paljude meetmete suhtes, mis jäid varem parteidest väljapoole, leiavad nüüd paratamatult aset parteisiseselt. Arvamuste paljususele teatud teemade suhtes, mis puudutavad üleüldisi põhimõtteid, millel parteide tegevus rajaneb, on ja peab jääma ruumi.
Kolmandaks. Parteipoliitilisest struktuurist võrsunud üksikasjalik programm tuuakse valijaskonna ette. Võimule naasmine sellise programmi toel on viinud uue doktriinini, mille kohaselt on võimuparteil mandaat viia ellu oma manifest selle täies ulatuses. Mina isiklikult kahtlen, kas valijad ikka toetavad partei manifesti igat punkti, kui nad valitsuse ametisse valivad.
Valimisprogrammi selline moodne tõlgendus on minu meelest mõjutanud teatud valijate hoiakuid; natuke liiga tihti on hakatud küsima: "Mida te minu heaks ette võtate?", eeldades, et valimisprogramm on loetelu lubadustest, mis hääle andmise eest hiljem täidetakse. Kõik see on viinud kummaliste suheteni valija ja valitava vahel. Kui valijal on kahtlus, et poliitik jagab lubadusi ainult tema hääle püüdmiseks, põlgab ta teda, aga kui lubadusi ei jagatagi, võib ta poliitiku ametist tõrjuda.
Mina usun, et parteid ja valimised tähendavad enamat kui mitmesuguste lubadustega kuhjatud konkureerivaid nimekirju—ja kui nad seda poleks, oleks vaevalt mõtet demokraatiat hoida.
Neljandaks. Heaoluriigi ulatuslik ja üleüldine arendamine on samuti uus nähtus ja mitte ainult siin, vaid ka teistes riikdes. Teile kindlasti meenub, et üks neljast President Roosevelt'i sõjaaja deklaratsioonis nimetatud suurest vabadusest oli 'vabadus puudusest'. Sellest peale on Läänemaailmas kavandatud erinevaid meetmeid, mis peaksid pakkuma suuremat turvalisust. Usun, et on tõene väita, et baasturvatunde saavutamiseks ei ole enam vaja rabeleda. Veelgi enam, peale on kasvanud täiesti uus põlvkond, kes on elanud kogu oma elu heaoluriigi foonil. Neil arengutel pidi olema suur mõju meie inimeste maailmavaatele ja hoiakutele, isegi kui me ei suuda seda veel korralikult mõõta.
Viiendaks. Üks kõrghariduse kiire leviku tulemus on, et inimesed oskavad nüüd peaaegu kõike kritiseerida ja küsimärgi alla seada. Ja mõned, paistab, ongi jäänud sinna pidama, selle asemel, et liikuda järgmisele tasandile, milleks on uute veendumusteni jõudmine või vanade juurde tagasi pöördumine. Ehk on teil veel meeles pressis avaldatud uudis, et üliõpilasliider Daniel Cohn-Bendit'ile anti tema kunagiste tööde eest teaduskraad. Eksamineerijate sõnul oli ta püstitanud terve rea äärmiselt intelligentseid küsimusi. Märkimisväärne? Oleksin märksa rõõmsam, kui ta oleks leidnud ka rea intelligentseid vastuseid.
Kuuendaks. Meie käsutuses on sündmustest rohkem informatsiooni kui kunagi varem ja koos televisiooni sünniga on ka uudiste esitamine muutnud väga elavaks. Märksa raskem on ignoreerida olukordi, mida oled näinud oma silmaga filmilindilt, kui neid, millest lugesid ajalehest ja sedagi ehk kiiruga ja diagonaalis. Televisioon ei ole ainult veel üks kommunikatsioonivahend, ta on meedium, mis tänu sellele, kuidas ta asju esitab, mõjutab radikaalselt hinnanguid, mida peame andma sündmustele ja inimestele, sh poliitikutele.
Seitsmendaks. Meie sünnipärane rahvusvaheline idealism on elanud läbi mitu tõsist vapustust. Paljud meie inimesed soovivad uskuda, et kui kõikide rahvaste esindajad saavad kokku ja unustavad põletavate rahvusvaheliste küsimuste arutamiseks oma eelarvamused, juhib ettemääratus ja hea tahe nad tarkade ja õiglaste järeldusteni ning rahu ja rahvusvaheline õigus ja kord saavad tagatud. Praktikas aga hääletavad mitmed riigid mitte õige ja vale vahel, seda ka meie mõistes täiesti ilmselgete valikute ees, vaid oma riigi huvidest johtuvalt. Nii mõnedki kõned ja propaganda, mida tehakse jultunud tegude õigustamiseks, paneks nii inglid kui valijaskonna pisaraid valama.
Kõik need faktid seletavad osaliselt seda illusioonide purunemist ja umbusku, millega täna kokku puutume. Muudatused on olnud kolossaalsed ja ma ei pane imeks, et praegu on ristküsitluse all terve süsteem. Ma tervitan tervet skeptitsismi ja küsimuste esitamist. Meie ülesanne on järjepidevalt vanu eeldusi üle kontrollida ja otsida uusi ideid. Aga me ei tohi otsida ühtainust, edasikaebamisele mitte kuuluvat vastust, mis peab lahendama kõik meie probleemid, sest sellist vastust ei saa olemas olla.
Teate ehk lugu palgasõdurist, kes palus kord Sfinksi ilmutada ühes lauses ajastute jumalik tarkus. Sfinks vastas: "Ära looda liiga palju."
Selles vaimus ja minu poolt visandatu taustal püüdkem analüüsida, mis on läinud valesti.
SUUR VIGA—LIIGA PALJU VALITSEMIST
Arvan, et viimase paari-kolme aasta suur viga on olnud see, et valitsus on püüdnud tagada või seadustega reglementeerida peaaegu kõike. Selle poliitika juured on osaliselt sõjajärgse perioodi ülesehituse plaanides, kui valitsused võtsid endale kõikvõimalikke uusi kohustusi. Selline suund oli omal ajal ehk õigustatud, aga tänaseks on taoline lähenemine läinud väga kaugele sellest, mida kunagi mõeldi või mõistlikuks peeti. Meie enda valitsussüsteemi varajasel ja sellele järgnenud perioodil soovisime seada piire, mille raames võiksid inimesed saavutada endale ise kehtestatud standardeid, mis oleksid alati baasstandardist sõltuvad. Aga mulle on sageli tundunud, et 1960. aastate alguses poliitika rõhuasetus muutus. Umbes samal ajal muutus poliitiliseks võtmesõnaks 'kasv'. Kui ressursid kasvasid aastas x protsenti, tõi see sisse lisaraha, mida valitsus vajas täiendavateks eraldisteks. Tookord pälvis see doktriin poolehoidu ja parteide vahel käis lausa teatud sorti võistlus kõrgeima võimaliku kasvumäära pärast. Neli protsenti või rohkem. Aga tulemuseks oli, et poliitiliste debattide rõhuasetus kandus selle käigus inimestelt majandusele. Tehti plaane 4 protsendilise kasvumäära saavutamiseks. Seejärel sai võimule praegune valitsus veel suurema plaani ja sotsialistlike ideedega selle elluviimisest. Mis tähendas, et kui inimesed plaaniga ei kohanenud, tuli neid selleks sundida. Selle tulemusena sündis kohustuslik hinna- ja palgapoliitika ja ühes sellega täiesti vastuvõetamatu arvamus, et valitsusel on võim kehtestada, milliseid palku tõsta.
Startisime inimeste sooviga saavutada teatud sfäärides suurem valitsuse sekkumine. See soov täitus. Ühes sellega saabus hetk, kui sekkumine oli kasvanud sedavõrd ulatuslikuks, et selle teostamiseks ei piisanud enam valitsusest ja vaja läks järjest rohkem ametnikke ja bürokraate. Täna on inimestel raske, kui mitte võimatu pääseda otsuseid langetava ametniku jutule ja paradoksaalsel kombel - kuigi sekkumise määr on suurem - on valitsus liikunud inimestest järjest kaugemale. Seetõttu on demokraatliku protsessi tänaseks tulemiks järjest suurenev autoritaarsus.
Juulis avaldas ajaleht Daily Telegraph huvitava küsitluse, mis näitas, kuidas inimesed umbisikulise autoriteedi valitsemisele reageerisid. Küsimus kõlas: "Kas teie arvates on inimestel nagu teie piisavalt / ebapiisavalt sõnaõigust selle suhtes, kuidas valitsus seda riiki juhib (68 protsenti vastas 'ebapiisavalt'), riigistatud majandusharude pakutavate teenuste suhtes (67 protsenti vastas 'ebapiisavalt'), kuidas kohalikud omavalitsused asju lahendavad (64 protsenti vastas 'ebapiisavalt'—pange tähele üsna suurt osakaalu; inimesed ei armasta kaugeid kohalikke omavalitsusi sugugi rohkem kui kaugeid valitsusi).’
Viimasel ajal avaldatakse järjest rohkem arvamuslugusid ja peetakse kõnesid teemal, kuidas kaasata inimesi senisest enam valitsuse otsustesse ja võimaldada neil teatud otsuste langetamise protsessis osaleda. Ent viis, kuidas saavutada isiklik seotus ja osalus, ei seisne mitte inimeste kaasamises järjest enamatesse valitsuse otsustesse vaid selles, kui valitsus vähendab enda poolt reglementeeritavat ala ja annab kodanikule - kasutades siinkohal moodsat väljendit - 'suurema osaluse', võimaldades tal rohkem ise otsustada. Mida me täna vajame, on märksa enam isiklikku vastutust ja otsustamist, senisest suuremat iseseisvust valitsusest ja valitsuse rolli suhtelist vähendamist.
Neil veendumustel on poliitika suhtes oluline mõju.
HINNAD JA SISSETULEKUD
Võtame esiteks hinna ja sissetulekute poliitika. Kõige efektiivsem hinnapoliitika ei seisne mitte hindade reguleerimises valitsuse poolt Hinna ja sissetulekute ameti kaudu, vaid toimub läbi konservatiivse lähenemise, mis soodustab aktiivset konkurentsi. Supermarketites tehakse palju rohkem hinnaalandusi kui riigistatud majandusharudes. See illustreerib erinevust olukordades, kus ohjad on valitsuse käes, või kus valitsus loob tingimused, kus hindu reguleerib efektiivne konkurents.
Sissetulekutest rääkides tundub, et elektoraadil on olnud parteide seisukohtade mõistmisega teatud raskusi. Minevikus ei olnud selles midagi imekspandavat, sest Parlamendi mõlemas kojas peeti kõnesid ja koostati dokumente, mis olid suhteliselt sarnased. Toon näitena neli erinevat tsitaati—kaks leiboristide valistuselt ja kaks meie valitsemisajast. Need on peaaegu äravahetamiseni sarnased.
1. ‘Palgamäärade üldise taseme kasv peab sõltuma efektiivsuse ja pingutuste suurenemisest tekkinud produktiivsuse kasvust.’ (Valge raamat tööhõivepoliitikast, 1944)
2. ‘Seetõttu on tähtis, et inimeste sissetulekud ei jätkaks üldist kasvu, kuni tootmise maht on teinud läbi vähemalt sama suure kasvu.’ (Sir Stafford Cripps, 1948)
3. ‘Valitsuse poliitika on soodustada kiiret majanduskasvu ... Aga selline poliitika satub ohtu, kui rahalised sissetulekud kasvavad siseriiklikust tootmisest kiiremini.’ (Par 1, Incomes Policy, The Next Step, Cmnd 1626, February 1962)
4. ‘... riikliku poliitika peamiseks eesmärgiks peab olema ... tõsta produktiivsust ja efektiivsust, et tegelik siseriiklik toodang kasvaks, ning seda tehes hoida nädala- ja kuupalgad ja muud sissetulekud selle kasvuga kooskõlas.’ (Graafik 2, Hindade ja sissetulekte seadus / Prices and Incomes Act, 1966)
Kõik ülaltoodud tsitaadid väljendasid üldisi majandusettepanekuid, aga poliitika, mis neile järgnes, oli väga erinev. Meie ei läinud algusest peale sunni rakendamise teed. See oli absoluutselt õige valik. Valitsuse ülesanne ei ole kontrollida viimast kui makstavat palka. Tal ei ole vahendeid õige palgamäära arvutamiseks. Veelgi enam, kohustus saada riigilt heakskiit töötaja palga tõstmiseks on enamusele eemaletõukav.
On veel üks aspekt, millele pean tänasest sissetulekute poliitikast rääkides tähelepanu juhtima. Paneme hetkel sissetulekute kontrollimisele väga suurt rõhku ja oleme seda tehes unustanud valitsuse põhiülesande, milleks on raha käibe kontroll ja nõudluse juhtimine. Suurem tähelepanu sellele ülesandele ja vähem tegelemist detailse välise kontrolliga tooks majandusele rohkem kasu. Loomulikult tähendab see, et valitsus peab võtma enda kanda teatud kulutuste valdkonnad, mis ta täna lahkelt teiste õlule asetab. See tähendab, et kulutamine hiigelsuures avalikus sektoris ei pea olema suurem kui maht, mida saab finantseerida maksulaekumistest pluss reaalne kokkuhoid. Juba mitu aastat on teatud kulutusi suurendatud ulatuses, mis võrdub raha trükkimise maksumusega. Minu väljendatud seisukohtades ei ole midagi vanamoodsat, samuti puudub selles igasugunen laissez-faire element. See on kaasaaegne arvamus rollist, mida valitsus peaks praegu täitma ja mis tuleneb minevikus tehtud vigadest, mille tulemusi täna kogeme.
MAKSUD JA SOTSIAALTEENUSED
Minu teine mõte rakendatavast poliitikast puudutab maksustamist ja sotsiaalteenuseid. Ei ole juhus, et Konservatiivne Partei on vähendanud maksumäärasid. Neid otsuseid ei tehtud hea õnne peale ja umbropsu, samuti polnud tegemist pelgalt hetkevajadusi silmas pidavate majandusotsustega. Nad sündisid reaalsest veendumusest, et valitsuse sekkumine ja kontroll kipub vähendama indiviidi rolli, tema tähtsust ja eelistust, mille kohaselt peab indiviid eelkõige ise oma tuleviku eest vastutama. Mis puudutab sotsiaalteenuste arendamist, peab poliitika tagama, et inimesi suunatakse, vajadusel maksusoodustusi rakendades, tegema endale oma ressurssidest järjest suuremaid provisjone. Riiklikud baasstandardid moodustaksid aluse täiendavatele eraprovisjonidele. Sellise poliitika eeliseks on, et valitsus saab keskenduda asjade tagamisele, millega kodanik toime ei tule. Näiteks haiglate.
Juhtusin ühel päeal lugema tsitaati, mida teil on ilmselt raske teemaga seostada.
‘Plaan, nagu see, pidigi olema drastiline ja väljendama ei midagi vähem kui uut mustrit ... (selle riigi haiglate jaoks) ... Nüüd, kus see on meil olemas, peame hoolitsema, et see ka toimiks. Olen varemgi öelnud, et see on käte ja jalgadega plaan. Ta liigub ja töötab. See ei ole staatiline kontseptsioon, välja öeldud igaveseks ajaks ja igavesti, vaid midagi, mis elab ja on dünaamiline ... Minu ministeerium tegeleb pidevalt plaani arendamisega, nii et oleme oma projektsioonidega reaalsest elust alati kümme aastat ees.’ (Hansard, 4th June 1962, Col. 153.)
Ei, see polnud Harold Wilson. See ei käi meie hiiglasliku üldise plaani kohta, vaid on öeldud väga kitsa plaani kohta väikeses valdkonnas, kus valitsus saaks palju ära teha. See oli Enoch Powell, kes tutvustas 4. juunil 1962 Alamkojas oma kümneaastast haiglate plaani.
ISESEISVUS RIIGIST
Üksikisiku teema juurde tagasi tulles, kui nõustume vajadusega suurendada vastutust iseenda ja pere eest, siis tähendab see, et peame lõpetama lähenemise asjadele piirangute võtmes. Inimeste soovis omada suuremaid sissetulekuid ei ole midagi valesti. Meeste ja naiste soov tõsta oma perede elatustaset ja pakkuda järeltulijatele rohkem kui neil endal kunagi oli, on väärt eesmärk. Soovin, et rohkem inimesi mõtleks samas suunas. Siis oleks vähem neid, kes arvavad, et 'seda peab tegema riik'. Vale on see, et inimesed tahavad rohkem, midagi vastu andmata. Kõrgetele palkadele eelneb raske töö. See on väga erinev ja palju stimuleerivam lähenemine kui sissetulekute hoidmine madalal tasemel.
Kahtlemata leidub süüdistajaid, kes arvavad, et oleme huvitatud ainult suuremast rahast. Aga see ei ole nii. Raha pole eesmärk omaette. Ta võimaldab elada enda valitud elu. Ühed eelistavad kulutada suuri summasid materiaalsete standardite parandamiseks, teised soovivad kulutada muusikale, kunstile ja kultuurile, kolmandad kasutavad oma raha, et aidata siin ja välismaal neid, kelle vajaduste suhtes tunnevad tugevat poolehoidu. Unustada ei tasuks ka seda raskelt teenitud suurt raha, mida see rahvas vabatahtlikult väärilisteks eesmärkideks annetab. Küsimus on selles, et isegi Heal Samariitlasel pidi olema raha, millega aidata, vastasel juhul oleks temagi hukka saanud.
Eluviisi valikutest rääkides on J. S. Mill'i vaated praegu sama asjakohased kui siis, kui ta oma mõtet väljendas. "Ainus vabadus, mis oma nime väärib, on oma kasu poole püüdlemine omal viisil niikaua, kuni me seda tehes ei jäta teisi samast õigusest ilma ega takista nende jõupingutusi oma eesmärgini jõuda ... Inimkonnana võidame rohkem, kui kannatame välja üksteise erinevad eluviisid, mitte siis, kui sunnime üksikisikut elama nii, nagu teised ette näevad."
Neil poliitikatel on veel üks tähtis aspekt. Ühiselt suudavad nad anda üksikisikule riigist teatava iseseisvuse —ja kes tahakski inimeste sõltuvust riigist ja nende pöördumist kõikides küsimustes riigi poole —ning hajutada võimu valitsusest eemale, suunates seda senisest märksa enam inimestele ja valitsusvälistele organisatsioonidele.
SUURUSE KÜSIMUS
Teine viga, mida tänane poliitika teeb, on mingil määral esimesega seotud. Meid on lummanud suuruse kontseptsioon. Seetõttu ei tunne inimesed end üldises pildis enam olulisena. Neil on mulje, et kõik on muutunud sedavõrd mastaapseks, organiseerituks ja reglementeerituks, et üksikisiku, tema annete, vajaduste ega soovide jaoks ei jätku enam ruumi. Et inimene ei loe.
Ei ole raske näha, kuidas selline tunne on tekkinud. Tööstus ülistab suuruse mõõdet juba aastaid, pöörates liiga vähe tähelepanu selle miinustele. Suurus põhjustab tõsiseid probleeme. Üks suuremaid on otsuste tegemine ja neist teada andmine. Otsustamise ülesanne kipub koonduma tippu ja järjest vähem inimesi saab võimaluse probleemi kaaluda, otsuseni jõuda, sellele kindlaks jääda ja tagajärgede eest vastutada. Vastutus lükatakse teiste kaela. Ja isegi pärast otsuseni jõudmist on keeruline edastada see arusaadavalt neile, kes peavad otsuse ellu viima, et nad tunneks end meeskonna liikmetena. Suures organisatsioonis, olgu selleks valitsus, kohalik omavalitsus või tööstusharu, viib ebaõnnestunud kommunikatsioon mastaapsete vigade, segaduse ja vastumeelsuseni. Neid probleeme saab ja tuleb ületada, aga see jäetakse liiga sageli tegemata.
VALITSUSASUTUSED JA ÜLDSUS
Kolmas viga seisneb selles, et inimesed tunnevad valitsusasutustes asju ajades, et nad ei lähe riigile korda. Vaadelgem hetkeks oma suhteid riigi bürokraatiaga. Alustame sünnitunnistusena, seejärel makstakse meie pealt lapsetoetust, siis anname põhjust maksusoodustuseks ja võimalik, et ka peretoetuseks, pärast arsti juures registreerumist määratakse meile tervisekindlustuse number, siis käime ühes või mitmes koolis, kus talletatakse hiljem meie haridust tõendavad dokumendid, taotleme õppetoetust, saame töö, hakkame maksma tervisekindlustust ja tulumaksu, taotleme televiisori- ja juhiluba, ostame hüpoteegiga maja, maksame kogukonnamaksu, ehk ostame paar valitsuse võlakirja, võtame välja elukindlustuse, hangime mõned aktsiad, abiellume, alustame kõike otsast peale, saame pensioni, muutume surmatunnistuseks ja surmatoetuseks ja lõpuks saame kandeks pärandimaksu büroo registris! Iga nimetatud samm eeldab blanketi täitmist või teatud küsimustele vastamist. Igal juhul registreeritakse kõik sammud ühes või teises kohalikus või riiklikus valitsusasutuses. Info hulk, mis meie kohta erinevates osakondades kogutakse, on aukartustäratav. Mõni ime, kui elu näib olevat 'ühe neetud formulaari täitmine teise järel'.
Mingil määral on blankettide täitmne muidugi vajalik, aga usun, et käes on aeg taaskinnitada inimese õigust privaatsusele. Ja ministrid peavad seda aspekti oma poliitikaid hallates arvestama. Teatud poliitikud kalduvad arvama, et arvutite olemasolu tingib kogu vastava info tsentraliseerimist ja säilitamist magnetlindil. Nende seisukohast hoiaks see kokku aega ja oleks senisest efektiivsem lähenemine. Võimalik, et neil on aja kokkuhoiu suhtes õigus. Samas ohustab see teisi, sellest tähtsamaid momente. See tähendaks, et inimese kohta luuakse isiklik toimik, kuhu pannakse kirja kogu tema kohta käiv informatsioon. Minu arvamuse kohaselt annab see riigile üksikisiku suhtes liiga palju võimu. USAs uurib Kongress parajasti täpselt sama küsimust, sest poliitikud on mõistunud sellise salvestiste kaugeleulatuvaid riske.
LIIGA PALJU TOETUMIST STATISTIKALE, LIIGA VÄHE HINNANGUTELE
Neljandaks arvan, et liig palju toetutakse statistilistele prognoosidele ja liiga vahe hinnangutele.
Kõik on kuulnud kõnekäändu valedest, neetud valedest ja statistikast, aga ma ei soovi siinkohal statistikat hukka mõista ja kõrvale lükata. Statistiliste ülevaadete koostajad tunnevad väga hästi oma piiranguid. Need, kes koostatud ülevaateid kasutavad, enam nii vastustundlikud ei ole.
Viimased majandusprognoosid on olnud kõik tegelikkusest palju optimistlikumad. Maksete bilansi prognoosid osutuvad üksteise järel valeks.
Nii näiteks prognoositi selle aasta veebruaris Majanduse ja Sotsiaalsete Uuringute Riiklikus Instituudis aasta teiseks pooleks 100 miljoni naela suurune ülejääk. Augustis prognositi terveks aastaks 600 miljoni suurune defitsiit ja järgmiseks aastaks 250 miljoni naelane ülejääk.
Nende kommentaar: "Maksete bilansid osutuvad aasta aastalt prognoositust halvemaks, aga erinevus seisneb põhiliselt ajastuses —liikumine plussi saabub hiljem koos üsna hea paranemise näitajaga."
Tegelikkuses tähendab see, et statistilised näitajad ei asenda hinnanguid vaid hoopis suurendavad vajadust nende järgi. Prognoosid ei saa olla paremad eeldustest, millel nad põhinevad ja viimased võivad olla väga erinevad. Lisaks tuleb arvestada ka olemuselt mittemõõdetava tundmatu faktoriga, mis võib vabalt osutuda määravaks.
PARTEIPOLIITILINE SÜSTEEM
Viiendaks ei ole me oma parteipoliitilist süsteemi seni piisavalt hinnanud ega ära kasutanud. Briti konstitutsionaalse süsteemi põhiomadus ei seisne mitte alternatiivse persooni olemasolus, vaid alternatiivse poliitika, terve alternatiivse valitsuse olemasolus, kes on valmis ametisse astuma. Tänu sellele on meil alati olnud opositsioon, kes suunab kriitika võimul oleva valitsuse pihta. Seetõttu pole meil tulnud jagada nende riikide saatust, kus tegutseb ametliku opositsioonita 'konsensuslik' või keskvalitsus. See oli üks Saksamaa häda põhjus. Meil puudub ka Ameerikalik süsteem, mis, nagu presidendikampaaniad näitavad, on muutunud peaaegu täielikult isikuvalimisteks.
Konsensuses peituvad ohud; konsensus võib olla katse meeldida inimestele, kel pole millegi suhtes kindlaid vaateid. Sellest palju tähtsam näib olevat filosoofia ja poliitika, mis oma toreduse tõttu meeldib piisavalt paljudele, et kindlustada endale enamus.
Kõnelesin mõne aja eest ülikooli auditooriumile ja rõhusin oma pöördumises sekundaarsele vastutusele ja iseseisvusele, kui minu juurde tuli esmakursuslane ja ütles: "Mul polnud varem sellisest selgest alternatiivist aimugi." Tema arvates oli tegemist võimalusterohke ja märksa efektiisema lähenemisega kui see, mida inimesed praegu oma saadikult või valitsuselt enda probleemide lahendamiseks ootavad. Konservatiivne kreedo ei ole kunagi lubanud kerget, pingutusteta elu. Sellistele inimestele demokraatia ei sobi. Isejuhtimine on mõeldud sellistele meestele ja naistele, kes on õppinud end ise juhtima.
Ükski suur partei ei püsi teisiti kui kindlatel veendumusel sellest, mida ta tahab teha. Tõrksavõitu toetusest üksi ei piisa. Meie soovime ka inimeste entusiasmi.
Estonian to English: Interview General field: Other Detailed field: Journalism
Source text - Estonian The interview was conducted by me in English. The transcript is made from the audio.
Translation - English Climbing Fences
/”To be curious and try to see behind things is most important to every living person. “/
Constantly on the forefront of international jazz avant-garde, Reiner Michalke surely enjoys taking risks. “I like a competitive situation,” he says. “This is my daily life.” He’s a cultural politician at heart, the Our Man in Havanna of jazz, a lobbyist convincing politicians, sponsors and the general public of the many values of contemporary improvised non-commercial music.
Average is not his word. Hard on himself, he’s also resolute with prospective new talents. “I want to see the truth, when it comes to music,” Reiner says. Calling himself “just a filter,” he scouts the world of improvised music 12 months a year. But his thinking reaches far beyond the music box, as he doesn’t believe in Ivory Towers. Reiner Michalke is an ardent learner, always searching out for the new, never content of what he has.
How did you get involved with EJN?
It must have been in the late 1980’s when Huub van Riel – he was and still is the Director of Bimhuis in Amsterdam – came to my office, introduced himself and asked if I wanted to join their network. That was the first time I heard of them. EJN developed through friendships and personal contacts back in those days. It has changed a lot within 20 years, becoming an umbrella organization for European jazz.
Today it has app. 80 members coming from all over Europe. Not only presenters and producers, but also national organizations taking care of jazz are now members of EJN. It looks like EJN is still growing and will be the one and only jazz organization in Europe.
Any funny moments or happy events you recall thinking of your first contacts with EJN?
It was first an Italian-based organization and I have memories of long lunches and even longer dinners at the best restaurants in Northern Italy. Ravenna was the heart, but we had also meetings in Florence, Sienna and elsewhere in Northern Italy.
These guys knew the best restaurants and the best wines available, which is why in the early days EJN was also referred to in the jazz world as EJM – European Jazz Mafia – because of its Italian roots and the attitude of the organization. EJN was always very aware of not mixing presenters with sellers. We were the buyers and the others were the sellers. This rule was very strict and somehow the impression went out to the musicians and agents and other actors in the jazz field, who were sceptical of having a close bunch of representatives, very Italian-organized, and hiding from publicity.
Why is EJN important for you?
It is very important for local audiences to have promoters who are connected with a wider understanding. If local audience knows that their festival or venue is connected to an international organization, it will be easier to believe national level organizers to have this bigger picture. For the promoters, on the other hand, it’s good to have this tool, to know one’s colleagues when you have to ask about something. I always use various colleagues reviews as information tools.
Being part of EJN means to be part of a broader communication system, which is good protection against really tough business done by some American agencies. So when they know that you’re part of EJN and they handle you bad, the risk that you will communicate this into your community will be high. You’re not isolated but part of a larger communication system, which is excellent protection against many problems.
What is the role of EJN in the European jazz community?
In theory, a European organization is able to improve the knowledge or marketing of jazz and other improvised musics better than national organizations can. Reality is that our national situations are still different – the funding, the acceptance of improvised music by audiences, therefore it’s not that easy to find a common strategy.
In the early years I tried to avoid the term “jazz” because that always brought conflicts. The politicians used to say, “This is American heritage music, but we care for European heritage.“ Jazz was invented by black slaves, and for European politicians this is no go.
It is true jazz is an American art form, and the European style of improvised music is different. We always have to specify that it’s a different kind of jazz we’re talking about, that we don’t mean Dixieland. We can never get to the point with just one term. We always have to say: “Jazz, but...”
In Scandinavia and the Netherlands everybody feels good about jazz. In Germany, jazz is still not so easy to go for and you are often misunderstood. So, because the European languages and countries are so diverse, it is not easy to come up with a common strategy to improve the value of jazz to our audiences. But it’s very important to talk about it, to see the differences. That brings everybody to new areas and to new ways of thinking. In the end, maybe we will find a common way and EJN is a perfect meeting place for doing this.
What are the subjects EJN should focus on in future?
The coin always has two sides. One side is internal relationships – everybody is looking for networking. This has been one of the main targets since the start of the organization. All members get to know other members and find partners to realize projects or talk about problems – funding problems, budget problems and political problems.
The other side of the coin is that EJN can have an impact on the outer world, acting as a lobbying organization mainly in Brussels for turning budgets towards our aims, but also for rising awareness and respect towards this very special kind of music that we represent.
What are your most successful projects?
I’m doing different things. My main thing is to run a venue which celebrated its 25th anniversary in August 2011 – the Stadtgarten in Cologne. We’re doing fairly well, but we get almost no funding from the city and we’re always fighting to survive. So when I was asked a month ago what I am particularly proud of, looking back at those 25 years, my response was, “That we’re still alive.”
We’re not in the position to do what we’d like to – putting together really nice programmes. We’ve got to always look at the budget and the box-offices, which makes our work really complicated. It’s been a permanent up and down for Stadtgarten. We had big time when we started. Then we had serious money problems. Now we’re a little bit safer, the situation is not that rough as it was a decade ago. But it’s far away from what we were aiming at when we started. It’s still a daily fight for survival, as it’s a bit more complicated to sell jazz than other music. You just have to be slightly crazy to do that. It’s not smart or clever. It’s what you may call a passion.
Do fulfilment and job satisfaction come hand in hand or do you need some conflict to act as a catalyst?
I need a very competitive situation. I like when it’s rough, I like to defend and argue – to battle for funds. I like to convince, that’s my daily life. If it’s all going smooth, I feel underestimated. I need a bit of a challenge, otherwise I get bored. But Stadtgarten is not my only job. I’m also organizing a festival – the one in Moers. It’s a very famous one and requires a lot of attention. And for me, this means another, though comfortable conflict between running a venue and creating a festival.
What’s the greatest difference between the two roles?
Running a festival is like a kids’ birthday party – it’s the easiest thing in the world, if you have managed a venue. With the festival, which is a once-a-year-event, everybody – the audience, sponsors, musicians, staff – is focused on one event, feeling motivated to give own input. It’s easy to mobilize all this energy on one certain focus.
In Moers I have a very comfortable position – I have a budget which allows me to invite musicians. And I also have a budget for my personal travels. Half of the year I’m travelling – listening to music and visiting festivals, concerts and similar. I’m a music scout and I’m scouting the whole world. And as I put together the programme, it gives me a very comfortable position to choose those who I really like and be aware of what’s happening in the world.
What are your criteria for inviting musicians to the festival?
That’s a mix of a lot of things. Moers is a festival that likes to present new things in between nowhere and mainstream. This needs a lot of instinct and intuition to choose, but it also involves a lot of hard work – scanning the whole world of improvised musics and trying to follow, who’s doing interesting things this year or having a new project with fascinating musicians.
But my main concern is what will work on a big stage in front of 2500 people in a big tent with no sound check. The musicians have to face a situation that can make them nervous. Improvised music means they don’t play anything composed. So they have to be in the condition to improvise and that’s not easy. I’m talking about a live event, which is very different from a radio show or other concert presentations. And it must be intelligent entertainment for my audience.
Is this the most critical aspect or are there other things to keep in mind running a festival?
I also try to keep the whole programme in balance, regarding the gender and age of musicians and their heritage i.e. where they come from. I’m not an artistic creator – I do not choose one aesthetical position. I’m more like a journalist, trying to give a broader picture. I try to cut my personal taste very low, so that it should have no influence on the programme. I try to give the audience an objective picture of what’s happening this year in improvised music all over the world in a balanced form. I don’t command the show, it’s not my statement. I’m just a filter. It’s up to the audience to decide whether they like it or not.
My fate is that the festival takes place every year, but I cannot guarantee new artists to show up at the same speed. I’m not in the position to say, “This year we have no good musicians, we won’t make the festival.” Like the winemakers, who say they can’t do Gran Reserva this year.
So I may have to choose some music remaining under my expectations. But my aim is that all the new kids on the block play first at Moers, when they play at a European festival. And I hope that in, say, 10 years from Moers concert, they are well-known and state Moers as their first major public appearance.
Have your instincts served you well?
It’s always a combination of hard work and good luck. I put big hopes on scouting. And it’s not me alone doing this. I have a lot of people with whom I contact on a regular basis and ask about what they’ve seen recently. I also get tips and I have this rule that if a name shows up twice, I will follow the hint. There are no musicians performing at Moers whom I haven’t seen live on stage. Minimum once, better twice.
How important is the visual side of a performer?
Our eyes are hungrier than our ears. Let me give you an example. Last night in Tallinn the very first band who played – they had their music stands and all they did was just looking at the stands. They were stressed, that’s understandable, but they never looked at each other, there was no communication. Everybody was doing just his thing. How can they communicate with an audience, if they don’t even communicate with each other?
Later on the same guys were standing somewhere around and looked quite relaxed, talking easily to each other. I was so near going to them and saying that if you’d done the same on stage I would have picked you.
Are there any core principles you follow when making work-related decisions?
These are two different things when it comes to music or when it comes to politics. In the first case I must get the feeling that I can trust the musicians on stage. And by trusting I mean whether their story is interesting, do I believe them. It’s hard to convince me. I want to see just the truth, when it comes to music. But once I trust, I really don’t care if the music is easy or complicated. I have no categories. I would always prefer a guy performing with a small percussion instrument to a big orchestra on stage that I don’t believe.
But when it comes to politics, everything is different. Then I’m a completely different person. Then I’m wearing my combat suite, then I’m a lobbyist, then I try to convince politicians, sponsors, whoever is in front of me. In this context my aim is to raise respect of the society towards contemporary improvised non-commercial music.
And I’m not focusing on musicians only, but to everybody on the move – artists, researchers and suchlike. I feel a little bit like a soldier, a medium between them and the politicians. I take this position because I have been an artist. But I turned tables and now I’m someone behind the stage.
Why do you no longer perform?
Making music or anything else, you have to be 100% devoted. If you want to be world-class, you have to dedicate everything to your thing. I was an average bass player but I hate everything average. My brain always told me what I should play on bass but my fingers didn’t follow and I didn’t like the frustration. Now I’m being very close to music – I didn’t change the field and can achieve world-class easier, as there are just fewer managers
What kind of background is required to be useful for the jazz community as a manager?
First of all, you have to know the music, love the music, and you have to understand musicians. The best is, if you were a musician. Then you know what it is to be on tour, to be on the road, all these things... Those 10 years spent as a musician were my education. I won’t miss the life of a musician, it gave me invaluable experience.
That’s not enough, though. You’ve got to have a wide range of knowledge. When I’m travelling to festivals and have spare time, I go to museums. Visiting Japan and Tasmania, I tried to get the whole picture. In Italy I was very much in wine tasting, which is quite close to music.
If music is happening just in the music circle, if it’s isolated, and you live in the Ivory Tower, you’ll have no relationship with your audience. If nothing happens, you’ve got nothing to tell. It’s important for me to always be searching and never be content with that what I have.
One of the recent experiences I had was in Southern France. There’s a place where they’ve found cave paintings, done by people 20 000 years ago. I was totally impressed by the artwork and tried to find more about what they’d done, about the social status of these artists in their time. Were they respected as artists or did they do their art after hunting? Or maybe they had to hide their work, because others said they were crazy, making silly paintings on the wall?
So I tried to get it all, read books, and I found out that Pablo Picasso had been there in 1940 and he said about those paintings “We’ve learnt nothing in those 20 000 years, we’re still there where they were. “ And this visit changed his complete work! Picasso was so impressed by the paintings in 1940 that he changed his whole art and decided to research for something new, rethink things. And this – to be curious and try to see behind things – is most important to every living person.
The most fruitful time in music was in the II half of the 60’s. Then we had the Beatles, Jimmy Hendrix, Miles Davis and John Coltrane. All these people were researchers and they were curious as to what the others were doing. Everybody was so inspired not only by the music of Jimi Hendix but by his attitude and explorations. That he didn’t take what was already there, but redefined his instrument. The same goes for Miles Davis. But they all knew each other and their inspiration came not only from music but from their approach to research.
What else has inspired you?
I visited Tasmania this year – the southernmost festival in the world, and just a couple of weeks later I was in Spitzbergen – the northernmost place to go. Both landscapes were totally different and yet very inspiring.
I’m also fascinated by Australians and Canadians, they are both very young nations, really new on the scene and that’s very interesting how they see the world. Cologne, my city, has an excellent geographical position, lying on the crossroads. But they are at the edge of something and have to travel a lot to come to other solutions, to get another view on things.
Is the jazz played in those areas somehow different from the jazz played in the heart of Europe?
Unfortunately not. That was what I was looking for. But they tend to play like Americans. They want to hide their origin. They want to hide they’re Crocodile Dundee and rather be like Americans. And they do not play with aboriginal musicians. I remember a few saxophonists playing the didgeridoo, but that was fake. But in Canada, on the west coast in British Columbia and in Labrador, on the east coast, I may find something else. I did a bit of research and found out that these musicians are closer to cooperation with others. So maybe something will happen there.
Is there a conflict between European and American jazz industries?
European jazz doesn’t exist in America. Nobody knows about it. They don’t even know that Europe exists.
In Europe we have to face the problem that American musicians and bands are more successful on the market. Therefore we’ll have to support and encourage our local audiences to love local musicians.
Are American musicians more successful because they’re in fact better or is that so because they are better marketed?
They don’t have any marketing. But if they survive in New York City, they must possess excellent surviving skills. Plus, they are very experienced in entertaining different audiences in different situations. Therefore it’s easier for them to be convincing on stage.
They are more entertaining, because they’ve learnt from the very first moments on stage that people will pay and buy tickets to be entertained. Europeans tend to have the attitude “I’m doing art on stage and you are allowed to listen”. The Americans are different, they are entertainers. When they come on stage, they say “Hello!” European musicians come on stage and start to play. And maybe say something about the next song which is dedicated to their 4-years old daughter or tell other boring stories nobody cares to listen.
In America bonding with the audience is the question of survival. They become different persons on stage. And that’s essential for them or else they’ll have to stand in front of the stage. Plus, they communicate on stage with each other. And – this is funny for me as a promoter for a hundred years – European bands tend to use the whole stage, be it 4 or 10 meters wide, whereas American band members always stand closely together. European musicians don’t seem to want to play together, as they stand in the farthest positions possible on stage.
Does the concept of a good musician differ when seen from a musician’s point of view and from a producer’s perspective?
To me a good musician is good to other musicians. Musicians are the first to choose, to recognize who is good, who is the right one. This is really easy. If you just follow the musicians, you can’t go wrong. When personalities clash, you always have to compromise. But improvising musicians are way more interested in what’s taking place on stage. They are ready to suffer on the road and ready to suffer and travel with assholes, if that what happens on stage is acceptable.
What about the impact of the Internet – is music globalizing?
Yes and no. The Internet speeds up things and what once took 100 years to develop can now happen in 10 years. You are here, at the edge of Europe, but via the Internet – if you want – you’ll get all the information. And those keen to get it, use it. And will be on top in a short time without any conflict. The same goes with other parts of the world. Take China, for instance, where they’re fighting for uncontrolled access to the Internet.
The Internet makes everything different. Revolution in Near East is also a direct result of the Internet. Transparency is the key for everything and the Internet is a perfect media for transparency and information transportation. It has changed the world.
There is another theory saying that there have always been regions where art or music – society in general – has reached a certain level. It began in Egypt or Greece 4000 years ago, moved to Rome, then to Europe, then to Northern America. Maybe the future country will not be geographical? Maybe the Internet will become the next cultural country where major things happen.
What connects you with politics?
When I started as a manager, I saw that not only jazz musicians were suffering and looking for more respect but that involved all forms of contemporary art. So I began talking to politicians.
I decided to join the Green Party not for the ecological aspects. My main aim was to develop the existing system and that brought me to the city council. I went from this to that and in the end I realized that in democracy it is all about getting the majority. You may have all the right arguments, but whether or not you have the majority behind you, is all that counts in the end. Then I found it’s very difficult if you did minority music and tried to get the majority support it. It was then that I decided I have to work in the jazz world to really change things.
So I stepped back from the political committees I had been working for over 20 years and decided to do lobbying for jazz in Germany. And I’m still doing it, but only for jazz and not for the big picture any longer. We have 84 opera houses with own orchestras and choirs in 81 cities in Germany. That is where the money goes and our lobby army is very tiny, not that powerful, but we try to do our best.
English to Estonian: Iconostasis General field: Art/Literary Detailed field: Religion
Source text - English ICONOSTASIS. HISTORICAL AND ARTISTIC APPROACH
Georgios Oikonomidis
One of the most important details of an Orthodox church is the iconostasis, a screen made of wood or marble, separating the bema from the nave. That of course applies not to the size, but to the symbolic meaning of it.
As a structure, the iconostasis dates back to the age of early Christians. As a concept, it was first used by St. Theodore of Studium1 in the 8th century.
Over time, the appearance of iconostasis has drastically changed.
At the times of early Christians, until the 5th century, the iconostasis was low – about a meter in height, and made of marble, standing either straight or curving around the bema from both sides. In some cases, its central gate either gained height or extended forward, creating a shed (ciborium). Its balustrades were usually decorated with simple geometric shapes or monograms (e.g. XP2, crosses, etc.).
In the Byzantine period, from the 5th century onwards, iconostases gained height. Pillars and a mother beam (epistyle) above them were added to the structure. Decorations became more diverse, showing the impact of Eastern artwork from the 7th century and continuing after the iconoclastic era. The spaces between pillars were covered with intermediary blankets, not icons.
In the 8th - 9th centuries, the low iconostasis becomes less common and a high iconostasis gains importance, stretching through all three naves and creating a kind of screen. This change is of great importance, since it happened simultaneously and due to changes in the Divine Liturgy. Thus the so-called screen of priests was created.
The next essential change took place in the 14th century, when the intermediary blankets were replaced by icons. Also, both could be often found appearing together (this custom still lives in some places, mostly in the rural churches of Greece). First, the icons depicting Jesus and Mother of God find a place on either side of the Royal Door3, and as over time their location remains unchanged, they begin to be called Icons of the Lord4. Thereupon the icons depicting John the Baptist, the patron saint of a church, angels, and others5 find their places in the remaining spaces between the pillars. The screen before the bema thus becomes fully covered, hiding the most sacred of places from the eyes of the faithful and separating the clergy from the crowd, this way completely isolating the altar where the Divine Liturgy is performed. The purpose of that is to emphasize the mysterious nature of liturgy. The period of these changes coincided with substantial changes in Divine Liturgy in the 12th century. Then again, the Icons of the Lord now stood right in front of the eyes of the faithful, drawing entire attention to themselves. Due to this, the deepest prayers of the faithful also represent the mediation of their prayers by Mother of God, the Precursor and other saints, making up a unique and extremely comforting sum of our prayers and the ways the prayers get heard.
Later on, icons are placed on the epistyle, constituting the so-called Deesis6 (characteristic examples of this can be found on the iconostasis of the Church of Holy Wisdom in Constantinople and the St. Mark's Basilica in Venice). This tradition continues through later times (characteristic examples to be found on the iconostases at the Holy Mountain from the Byzantine era), gradually evolving into modern wood-carved iconostases.
After the fall of Constantinople, in the post-Byzantine period, the iconostases grew higher, since a row of icons depicting the Twelve Holy Ones is added above the Deesis, the latter at times being left out altogether. Such developments in the appearance of the iconostasis were also influenced by Orthodox Russia. At that time, Russian churches were built of wood, and as such, they were impossible to carry murals. Thus it became necessary to gather all icons on the iconostasis, bringing along the gradual elevation of the latter. This trend was also adopted by the Greeks, enslaved by the Turks at that time. This way the iconostasis truly became an iconostasis7, which became its principal name.
In the 16th - 17th centuries, wood became the principal material of iconostases instead of marble. This was most probably due to economic reasons, as marble was an extremely expensive. As a softer and better workable material, wood gave the artists an opportunity to enrich the adornments of iconostases with complex motifs, usually those of plants and animals, and later on, with various Biblical images.
From then on, the iconostasis acquires a new design, consisting of three main parts. The lower part is made up of balustrades, sometimes without embellishments, sometimes decorated with various carvings or painted images. Pillars stand on the second level together with the icons placed in between them (the Icons of the Lord and others). Finally stands the third level with the icons of the Twelve Holy Ones or the Deesis, at times both. Between those, narrow carved belts (friezes – shaped, for instance, like vine branches) are located, enriching the structure aesthetically and making it higher. In many cases, crowned by the Crucified and the dragons, the iconostasis reaches the ceiling of the sanctuary.
The artistic tendencies of the said era range from smooth-surfaced woodcuts of various subjects inherited from the Byzantine traditions or influenced by the Islamic arts, to delicate fretwork, clearly showing the impact of the Renaissance and the European Baroque. Different schools of art from the mid-18th to mid-19th century developed a new artistic tendency called the Neo-Greek Baroque, constituting the heyday of Greek ecclesiastical fretwork. It was in this era that several unique artworks were created, teeming with intricate and unique technical and artistic motifs, related to pertinent symbolic or theological subject-matter.
Theological Approach, Symbols
The symbolic meaning of iconostasis should be viewed in the context of the general symbolism of the Orthodox Church.
Due to the widespread approach from the Byzantine era, a sanctuary was an image of the world. According to that approach, the roof (cupola) expressed the sky and the floor the earth. It is a micro-world, representing the tangible and intangible creation.
Divine Liturgy is performed in the sanctuary, representing the liturgy performed in heaven. The sanctuary is considered the symbol and the earthly icon of the imaginary heavens – where the angels perform the Divine Liturgy before God's Throne.
The altar symbolizes Heaven and the main part of the church is everything earthly, the so-called Battling Church.
According to the tripartite interpretation of Christian sanctuary, the passageway is a representation of the outer world, the main part of the church that of the “visible” sky and the altar of the invisible spiritual world – the Paradise.
In this described symbolic approach, the iconostasis has a defined role of a divider between the human (i.e. the church) and the heavenly worlds (i.e. the altar). The balustrades of the iconostasis symbolize the door stone of the grave of Christ. This symbol also associates with God's Throne – the focus of Christian liturgy.
It is relevant to emphasize that in the Orthodox tradition, the iconostasis is not just a decorative partition that the Catholics and the Protestants have come to believe.
Neither is it a random collection of icons, but the result of a long and purposeful development towards a well-defined goal. The way the topics are put together for the iconostasis reveals the kinship between the sacrificial altar and the sanctuary, between the timely and the timeless, expressing the unity and intertwining of the two worlds.
The iconotasis, visible to all the faithful in the church, brings to their sight the entire history of divine providence. The tale of man, created to the image and likeness of the Holy Trinity, as well as the journey of God in the course of history.
The journey of man towards divine revelation is preserved from downside up: the reception of the Good Message – the Gospel (the Holy Evangelists on the Royal Door), the communion of human and divine will (the Evangelistic image on the Royal Door explains the communion between the two wills) and, finally, the communion in thanksgiving sacrifice (the Eucharist). Via all this, man moves up, towards the One depicted in the row of Deesis, and it becomes true in the ecclesiastic communion, integrating him to His body and making himself a part of Christ, as put by Leonid Uspenski.
Every part of the iconostasis has own symbolic meaning:
The Royal Doors represent the entrance to God's Kingdom, or the Heavenly Paradise; the Evangelic image shows the beginning to our salvation and entering the Kingdom. The message of Gospel (marked by the images of the Evangelists on the crossing) is aimed at the entire world, leading every single human being towards Christ to have a share in His kingdom.
The Archangels are painted on the side gates (and elsewhere) as co-servers at the performance of secrecy, and as guardian soldiers at the entrance.
At the solea, located between the bema and the nave, the faithful share the Holy Communion. Which is why an icon depicting the Communion or its augury in Abraham's hospitality, is usually placed above the Royal Door as the liturgical interpretation of the Last Supper.
The cross on the iconostasis – a symbol of venerability – has been taken to the top of the screen, since it represents less of the climax of Christ humbled, but more of the divine might and glory appearing in the person of Jesus Christ; the cross has now become the focal piece of the upper part of the iconostasis.
It is of great importance that where ever an iconostasis is built, utmost possible perfection is sought and the original minimalist form is not being confined to. Much like the Divine Liturgy, there is an entire range of basic elements for the iconostasis that may be diminished or enlarged as necessary, but never distorted. Thus, the iconostasis, too, may be more or less complete, but in no way is it an ordinary partition wall filled with randomly picked icons. Neither can it be a simple railing-like fence, for it has never been anything even close to that, not even at the very beginning, when being only a low colonnade.
The Iconostasis of the Church of St. Simeon and Prophetess Hannah of Tallinn
Before making an iconostasis, a preliminary research is always carried out in cooperation with individuals responsible for the particular church. In the course of this research, the shape, various details and other minor elements determining the looks of the iconostasis will be decided.
Thus, in the case of the overall shape of the iconostasis, first the desired era and style will be determined. Thereafter, by choosing the images and symbols to be applied, the theological-symbolistic aspects will be determined.
To this particular iconostasis, the following principles were applied:
• The Byzantine tradition as the basis for all Orthodox artistic tradition has been displayed, using at the same time such artistic details that would be easily recognised by the orthodox Estonians.
Connecting the two mentioned criteria is relevant for emphasizing the continuity of the centuries-old Orthodox tradition. This tradition, at times expressed artistically in different ways (according to the region, nationality of the faithful, the period, and sometimes even theological or non-theological ideologies), does neither alienate nor back away from the Byzantine tradition, dating back to the days when the basic principles of Orthodoxy, as well as the artistic expressions of it, were born.
The general looks of the iconostasis is Byzantine. It is simply shaped, low (it has no belt of the Twelve Holy Ones); the icons are quadrangular, without upper arches (just like in the Byzantine era); a mother beam is stretching over the pillars and the cross gives the iconostasis a pyramidal shape. Various details from the post-Byzantine period have been added to the aforementioned features with the purpose of giving the entire building a richer, more aesthetic look and emphasizing its history that dates back to different architectural periods. As a result:
• Various Hellenistic and Baroque-influenced elements (botanic and animal motifs) were used for carved decorations.
• A belt of plaques with carved images of various events from the Old Testament was added under the icons.
• To achieve the desired height of the iconostasis, a narrow fretwork belt with 18th - 19th century Greek motifs was added on the caps (heads) of the pillars.
• Slightly protruding double pillars were placed in the middle part of the iconostasis, giving the structure a more three-dimensional look. The middle pillars, just like the rest, are covered with fretwork; however, different patterns have been used on these. Also, their bases are fully covered with heavy Baroque-style cuttings.
• The central part of the iconostasis was designed to be considerably more modern: the opening for the middle gates was built extra wide, thus following a certain – European, one might say – liturgical tendency, according to which everything taking place in the bema must be visible to the congregation.
• The pyramidal design of the cross and its adjacent details are distinctive to the post-Byzantine era. The pyramid is shaped of lengthy botanic motifs and continuations of embellishments consisting of corresponding symbols. The cross is big, surrounded by dragons symbolizing sufferings.
All this is complemented with images from Estonian own art traditions, such as flowery decorations on the bases of pillars. The vines, blossoms and fruit are very common in Estonian folk art. We found them cut into a stone plate laying in a park in Old Tallinn. The same applies to the shape of the cross and the image of a shell (also a common symbol in the Byzantine culture) above the icons, both found on the coat of arms of the Estonian Apostolic Orthodox Church.
Symbols on the Iconostasis
Let us begin with the lower part of the iconostasis:
Early Christian images, such as ΑΩ8, XP, and Estonian crosses are cut into balustrades below the icons. The carved wickerwork on the balustrades is a decorative element characteristic to the post- Byzantine period.
The belt right below the icons is covered with plaques with topical carvings from the Old Testament, constituting perhaps the most valuable artistic element of the entire iconostasis for a number of reasons. Firstly, it is a noteworthy piece of art, as carving tiny human figures of wood requires unique artistic abilities. Second, the selection of the depicted topics demands previous theological research, since by those, we intend to show the congregation the connection between the plaques and the above icons, emphasizing the omens of the New Testament events in the events of the Old Testament, verifying the unity between both Covenants. The augural events depicted are related to the above icons as follows:
• The icon of Jesus with the creation of Adam beneath it. According to the Byzantine icon painting tradition, the Creator is Jesus. Adam is depicted in the shape of the Lord, since He created him „to the Lord's image and likeness“.
• The icon of the Mother of God with the creation of Eve beneath it. Here the first Eve – of the Old Testament – and the new Eve – Mother of God – are right next to one other.
• The icon of John the Baptist with Prophet Elijah beneath it. The Old Testament prophet-pursuer with the younger prophet of the New Testament.
• The icon of the Lord taken to sanctuary with the Burning Bush beneath it, being the augury of the Mother of God in the Old Testament.
The rest of the icons depict local Estonian saints. The augury presented next to them is related to symbols of either their identity (e.g. a bishop) or details of their life (e.g. suffering):
• The icon of the saint, bishop and martyr Plato with the sacrifice of Abraham beneath it. Here, Abraham as the High Priest of the Old Testament is related to a New Testament High Priest. Also, it presents the augury of sacrificing to the Lord as depicted in the Old Testament.
• The icon of the saint, bishop and martyr Nicolas with the image of three young men in a hot furnace – a scene of martyrdom from the Old Testament.
• The icon of the saint, bishop and martyr Basil with the image of Moses with a cross and a snake beneath it.
• The image of saint, priest and sufferer Michael with the prophet Daniel in the hole of lions beneath it – again a scene of martyrdom from the Old Testament.
Other images found on the iconostasis:
• On both sides of the Royal Door, symbols of the Evangelists can be found, since this is the place where the Gospel is read.
• The Evangelic icon on the Royal Door, also in fretwork.
• The Hospitality of Abraham9 is carved above the Royal Door, being the augury of the Last Supper (connection with the Holy Eucharist).
• Right above that, in the middle of the mother beam, the Mandylion is located, being one of the icons not made by human hands and serving as a model for the first painted icons of Jesus10.
• On the base of the Crucified, where usually the scull of Adam (symbolizing the washing off the sins of forefathers with the Lord's blood) is painted, a unique and extremely rare masterpiece is carved, originating from a Meteora the Great Lavra's 16th century wall
• -painting, whereupon Adam himself is washed all over with the Lord's blood.
Other symbolic motifs:
• Images of lions (symbols of might and power) with angels heralding the Gospel on the bases of the central pillars entirely covered with fretwork, the originals of which stand in the Dionysian Monastery at the Holy Mountain.
• The dragons next to the cross have double meaning. They are considered the guardians of the cross, as well as the embodiments of evil. Thus they always stand beneath the cross – the goodness that overpowers them.
• The shell symbolizes the Mother of God (Rejoice, shell which produced the divine Pearl. - hymn from the 5th Ode from the Akathist Canon to the Mother of God).
We believe this iconostasis, along with all its decorations, symbols, images and subdivisions is artistically and technically rich, wholly meeting the aesthetic needs of the sanctuary, as well as being perfect from the theological point of view.
Translation from Greek by Priest Tikhon Tammes.
Translation - Estonian IKONOSTAAS. AJALOOLINE JA KUNSTILINE KÄSITLUS
Georgios Oikonomidis Õigeusu kirikuhoone üks kõige olulisemaid detaile on ikonostaas ehk puust või marmorist vahesein, mis eraldab altarit kiriku põhiosast. Seda muidugi mitte oma suuruse, vaid sümboolse tähenduse pärast.
Ehitisena pärineb kujusein juba algkristlikust ajastust. Mõistena aga võtab selle esmakordselt kasutusele Teodorus Studiit VIII sajandil. Aegade jooksul on kujuseina välimus tugevalt muutunud. Algkristlikul ajastul, kuni V sajandini, oli kujusein madal, umbes meetri kõrgune ja valmistatud marmorist kas sirgjoonelisena või mõlemalt küljelt ümber altari kaarduvana. Mõnel juhul tõusis selle keskmine värav kõrgusesse või eendus varjualuse (kiboorioni) näol. Selle rinnatised olid kaunistatud tavaliselt lihtsate geomeetriliste kujundite või monogrammidega (nt XP , ristid jms). Bütsantsi ajastul, alates V sajandist ja hiljem, muutub kujusein kõrgemaks. Lisanduvad sambad ja nendepealne ematala (epistüül). Kaunistused muutuvad tunduvalt mitmekülgsemaks, milles on alates VII sajandist ja jätkuvalt pärast ikoonipõlgajate ajastut tunda ida kunsti mõjusid. Sammastevahelised tühimikud olid aga kaetud vahetekkide, mitte ikoonidega. VIII-IX sajandi kestel madal kujusein taandub ja valdavaks muutub kõrge kujusein, mis laiub läbi kiriku kõigi kolme löövi, moodustades omamoodi tõkke. Sel muudatusel on suur tähtsus ja see sündis samaaegselt muutustega jumaliku liturgia toimetamise korras või oli pigem viimastest tingitud. Nõnda kujunebki välja nn preestrite vahesein. Järgmine suur ja väga oluline muutus leiab aset XIV sajandil, mil sammastevahelised vahetekid asenduvad ikoonidega. Seejuures võis sageli kohata mõlemaid korraga (see tava on paiguti säilinud tänapäevalgi, peamiselt Kreeka maapiirkonna kirikutes). Esmalt leiavad oma koha kummalgi pool kuninglikke uksi Jeesuse ja Jumalasünnitaja ikoonid, see paigutus kinnistub aja möödudes ning neid hakatakse nimetama Issanda ikoonideks . Seejärel leiavad ülejäänud sammastevahelistes tühimikes oma koha ka Ristija Johannese, kiriku nimepühaku, inglite ja muud ikoonid . Vahesein altari ees muutub seeläbi täiesti läbipaistmatuks, peites kõigepühama paiga usklike silme eest ja lahutades vaimulikkonna ülejäänud rahvast, eraldades sel moel täielikult altari, kus toimetatakse jumalikku liturgiat. Selle eesmärk on rõhutada liturgia salasuslikku iseloomu. Ajaliselt langeb see kokku oluliste arengutega jumaliku liturgia teenistuskorras XII sajandil. Samas asusid Issanda ikoonid nüüd otse usklike silme ees, tõmmates kogu tähelepanu enesele. Tänu sellele kujutavad usklike sügavad palved ühtaegu ka nende palvete vahendamist Jumalsünnitaja, Eelkäija ja teiste pühakute poolt, moodustades omapärase, väga lohutavalt mõjuva terviku meie palvetest ja palvete kuuldavõtmisest.
Veelgi hilisemal ajal asetatakse sammastepealsele ematalale ikoonid, mis moodustavad üheskoos nn Suure Palve (selle iseloomulikeks näideteks on Konstantinoopoli Püha Tarkuse ja Veneetsia Püha Markuse kirikute kujuseinad). Kirjeldatud traditsioon jätkub ka hilisemal ajal (mille iseloomulikeks näideteks on Püha Mäe bütsantsi ajastu kujuseinad), jõudes välja tänapäevaste puust nikerdatud kujuseinteni. Pärast Konstantinoopoli langemist, bütsantsi ajastu järgsel perioodil, muutub kujusein veelgi kõrgemaks tänu kaheteistkümne püha ikoonide rea lisamisele Suure Palve pühakujude kohale, mis mõnikord ka koguni ära jäetakse. Kujuseina välimuse sellisele arengule avaldas mõju ka õigeusklik Venemaa. Tolle ajastu Venemaa kirikud olid ehitatud puust ja seetõttu oli võimatu neid katta seinamaalingutega. Nõnda tekkis vajadus koondada ikoonid kujuseinale, mis tõigi kaasa seina järk-järgulise kõrgenemise. Selle suundumuse võtsid omaks ka türklaste orjastatud kreeklased. Nõnda kujunebki kujusein tõeliseks ikonostaasiks ja sellest saab ka tolle peamine nimetus. XVI-XVII sajandil hakatakse marmorist kujuseinte asemel valmistama puitikonostaase. Suure tõenäosusega kasutati puitu peamiselt majanduslikel kaalutlustel, kuivõrd marmor on väga kallis materjal. Pehmema ja kergemini töödeldava materjalina andis puit kunstnikele võimaluse rikastada ikonostaasi kaunistusi keeruliste, peamiselt taimede ja loomade motiividega ning hiljem erinevate piibliteemaliste kujunditega. Sealt alates omandab ikonostaas uue, üldjoontes kolmeosalise kujunduse. Alaosas asuvad rinnatised, mis on mõnikord ilma kaunistusteta ja mõnikord kaunistatud erisuguste nikerdatud või koguni maalitud kujunditega. Teises reas asuvad sambad koos nendevaheliste ikoonidega (Issanda pühakujud jt ikoonid). Ja lõpuks kolmas vöö kaheteistkümne püha või Suure Palve ikoonidega, vahetevahel ka mõlematega koos. Nende vahel asuvad vaheldumisi kitsamad, nikerdustega kaetud vööd (friisid – näiteks viinamarjaväädi-kujulised), mis sisuliselt rikastavad ehitist esteetilisest küljest ja tõstavad samaaegselt ka selle kõrgust, tänu millele ulatub see paljudel juhtudel Ristilöödu ja lohedega pärjatult kuni pühakoja laeni. Kogu nimetatud ajastu kaunistuste kunstilised suundumused ulatuvad alates siledapinnalistest eriteemalistest puulõigetest, mis pärinevad bütsantsi traditsioonist või on mõjutatud islami kunstist, kuni äärmiselt peenelt töödeldud nikerdusteni, milles on selgelt äratuntavad renessansi ja euroopaliku baroki mõjud. Eri kunstivoolud XVIII sajandi keskpaigast kuni XIX sajandi keskpaigani jõudsid välja uue kunstilise suunani, mida hakati kutsuma uus-kreeka barokiks, milles Kreeka kiriklik nikerduskunst jõudis oma õitsengu tippu. Just sel ajastul on loodud mitmed ainulaadsed kunstiteosed, mis kihavad rasketest ja ainulaadsetest tehnilistest ja kunstilistest motiividest, olles seotud vastavasisulise sümboolse või teoloogilise temaatikaga. Teoloogiline käsitlus, sümbolid Kujuseina sümboolset tähendust tuleb vaadelda kogu õigeusu pühakoja üldise sümboolika taustal. Bütsantsi ajastul levinud käsitluse kohaselt kujutas pühakoda kogu maailma. Selle käsitluse järgi oli katus (kuppel) taevas ja põrand maa. See on üks pisi-maailm, mis kujutab eneses nii nähtavat kui ka nähtamatut loodut.
Pühakojas toimetatakse jumalikku liturgiat, mis kujutab taevas peetavat liturgiat. Pühakoda peetakse kujuteldava taevaruumi – kus Jumala aujärje ees toimetavad inglid jumalikku liturgiat – sümboliks ja maapealseks ikooniks.
Altar sümboliseerib taevast ja kiriku põhiosa kõike maapealset, nn võitlevat Kirikut.
Kristliku pühakoja kolmikliku käsitluse kohaselt kujutab eeskoda välist maailma, kiriku põhiosa „nähtavat” taevast ja altar nähtamatut vaimset maailma – paradiisi. Kirjeldatud sümboolses käsitluses on kujuseinal oma kindel koht, olles see, mis eraldab inimlikku maailma (s.o kiriku põhiosa) taevasest (s.o altarist). Ikonostaasi rinnatised sümboliseerivad Kristuse haua uksekivi. See sümbol seostub ühtlasi ka püha aujärjega, mis on kristliku jumalateenistuse kese. On oluline rõhutada, et vastupidiselt katoliiklaste ja protestantide seas levinud arusaamale, ei ole kujusein õigeusu traditsioonis tühipaljas vahesein, mis täidab kaunistuslikku otstarvet.
Samamoodi ei ole see ka juhuslik, ilma sügavama mõtteta kokku pandud ikoonide kogum. See on pikaajalise sihipärase arengu vili, mis on suunatud ühe kindla eesmärgi poole. Kujuseina temaatiline ülesehitus toob esile suguluse, mis valitseb ohvrialtari ja pühakoja, ajaliku ja ajatu vahel, väljendades nende kahe maailma ühtsust ja teineteise sisse asetumist. Kujusein, olles kergesti nähtav kõigile usklikele üle terve kiriku, toob nende ette kogu jumaliku hoolekande ajaloo. Loo inimesest, kes sai loodud Kolmainu Jumala kuju järgi ja Tema sarnaseks ning samas ka Jumala teekonnast läbi ajaloo. Inimese teekond jumaliku ilmutuse juurde on talletatud alt ülespoole: Hea Sõnumi – evangeeliumikuulutuse – saamine (pühad evangelistid kuninglikel ustel), inimliku ja jumaliku tahte ühendumine (rõõmukuulutamise kujutis kuninglikel ustel seletab lahti nende kahe tahte ühendust) ja lõpuks osadus tänuohvris (euharistias). Selle kõige kaudu liigub inimene üles selle poole, keda kujutatakse Suure Palve ikoonide reas, ja see saab tegelikkuseks läbi kirikliku osaduse, muutes teda ihu liikmeks ja osaliseks Kristuse sees, nagu ütleb Leonid Uspenski. Igal kujuseina osal on sümboolne tähendus:
Kuninglikud uksed kujutavad sissepääsu Jumala Kuningriiki ehk taevasesse paradiisi; rõõmukuulutamise kuju meie lunastuse algust ja pääsemist Kuningriiki. Evangeeliumi kuulutus (mida tähistavad evangelistide kujud nelitisel) on suunatud kogu maailmale, juhatades iga inimest lähenema Kristusele ja saama osa Tema Kuningriigist.
Peainglid on maalitud külgväravatele (ja ka mujale) kui kaasteenijad salasuse toimetamise juures ja kui vahisõdurid sissepääsu ees.
Soleal, mis asub altarilaua ja kiriku põhiosa vahel, saavad usklikud osa jumalikust armulauast. Seepärast paigutataksegi tavaliselt kuninglike uste kohale püha õhtusöömaaja liturgilise tõlgendusena mõni ikoon, mis kujutab armulauaosadust või selle ettetähendust Aabrahami külalislahkuse näol.
Kujuseina rist kui aulisuse sümbol on viidud kujuseina tippu, sest rist ei sümboliseeri mitte niivõrd Kristuse alandumise kulminatsiooni, kuivõrd jumaliku väe ja au ilmumist Jeesuse Kristuse isikus ja selle kujutis on nüüdseks muutunud kogu kujuseina ülaosa kõige kesksemaks osaks. On väga oluline, et kuhu iganes ka juhtutakse ehitama ikonostaasi, püütakse see teha võimalikult täiuslik ega piirduta selle algupärase minimalistliku vormiga. Kujuseinal, nii nagu ka jumalikul liturgial, on terve rida põhielemente, mida võib vajadusel kas vähendada või suurendada, aga mitte mingil juhul moonutada. Nõnda võib ka kujusein olla küll suuremal või vähemal määral väljaehitatud, aga mitte ühelgi juhul ei saa see olla mingi tavaline vahesein, mis on ikoone suvaliselt täis riputatud. Samamoodi ei saa see olla ka lihtne käsipuude-taoline piirdeaed, sest midagi sellist pole see olnud isegi mitte oma arengu algaegadel, kui too kujutas endast alles lihtsat madalat sammastikku. Tallinna Püha Siimeoni ja naisprohvet Hanna kiriku ikonostaas Enne ikonostaasi valmistamist tehakse alati eeluuring koostöös iga konkreetse kiriku vastutavate isikutega, mille käigus otsustatakse, missugune on tulevase ikonostaasi kuju, eri detailide lahendus ja kõik muud väljanägemist määravad pisiasjad. Nii määrataksegi ikonostaasi üldise kuju puhul esmalt ajastu, mille stiilis seda rajada soovitakse. Seejärel pannakse kasutatavate kujutiste ja sümbolite valikuga paika ikonostaasi teoloogilis-sümbolistlik külg. Kõnealuse ikonostaasi puhul on lähtutud järgmistest põhimõtetest:
• on toodud esile bütsantsi traditsiooni kui õigeusu kunstilise traditsiooni alus, kasutades samas selliseid kunstilisi detaile, mis on eestlastest usklikele kergesti äratuntavad.
Kahe eeltoodud tingimuse omavaheline sidumine on oluline sajandeid püsinud õigeusu traditsiooni järjepidevuse rõhutamiseks. See traditsioon, mille kunstilises väljenduses võib tulla ette erinevusi (sõltuvalt piirkonnast, usklike rahvuslikust päritolust, ajastust ja vahest koguni teoloogilist või mitteteoloogilist laadi ideoloogilistest suundumustest), ei võõrandu ega tagane samas bütsantsi traditsioonist, mis pärineb juba tollest ajastust, mil kujunesid välja õigeusu peamised alused ühes kunstilise väljendusega. Ikonostaasi üldine väljanägemine kuulub põhijoontes bütsantsi ajastu stiili. Sel on lihtne kuju, see on madal (puudub kaheteistkümne püha vöö), ikoonid on kandilised, ilma kumeruseta nende ülaosas (just nagu bütsantsi ajastulgi), selle sammastikku katab ematala ja kujuseinale tervikuna on risti abil antud püramiidjas kuju. Eeltoodud põhijoontele on lisatud erinevaid detaile bütsantsi ajastu järgsest perioodist eesmärgiga rikastada kogu ehitist esteetiliselt, andes sellele laiema, erinevaid ajastuid läbiva iseloomu. Sellest tulenevalt:
• kasutati nikerdatud kaunistustel erinevaid hellenistlikust ja barokkstiilist mõjutatud elemente (taime- ja loomamotiivid).
• lisati ikoonide alla eraldi vöö kilbikestega, millele on nikerdatud mitmesugused Vana Testamendi sündmuste kujundid.
• lisati kujuseina soovitud kõrguse saavutamiseks sammastiku sambapäiste (kapiteelide) peale kitsas puitnikerdustega kaunistatud vöö, milles on kasutatud XVIII-XIX sajandi kreeka ikonostaasidel levinud motiive.
• paigutati kujuseina keskossa kergelt eenduvad topeltsambad, mis annavad ehitisele ruumilise mõõtme. Keskmised sambad, nagu ülejäänudki, on kaetud nikerdustega, kuid neil on kasutatud teistsuguseid mustreid. Samuti on nende alused kaetud tervenisti raskes barokkstiilis lõigetega.
• kujundati ikonostaasi keskosa tunduvalt kaasaegsemalt: keskväravate ava tehti eriti lai, järgides teatavat – võiks öelda, et euroopalikku – liturgilist suundumust, mille kohaselt peab kõik altaris toimuv olema usklikele paremini nähtav.
• on risti ja sellega seonduvate osade püramiidjas kujundus omane bütsantsijärgsele ajastule. Püramiid on kujundatud pikkadest taimemotiividest ja asjakohastest sümbolitest koosneva kaunistuse jätketest. Rist ise aga on suur, ümbritsetud kannatusi sümboliseerivate lohedega.
Kõike seda on täiendatud kujunditega, mis pärinevad Eesti enda kunstitraditsioonist, nagu näiteks lillelised kaunistused sammaste alustel. Neis sisalduvaid vääte, õisi ja vilju võib kohata pea kõikjal rahvakunstis. Meie leidsime need kiviplaadile raiutuna ühes Tallinna vanalinna pargis. Samamoodi Eesti Kirikus kasutatava kujuga rist EAÕK vapil kasutatud rist ja rannakarbikujutis ikoonide kohal (viimane on levinud sümbol ka bütsantsi kultuuris). Sümbolid ikonostaasil Alustagem kujuseina alaosast: - ikoonidealustele rinnatistele on lõigatud algkristlikud kujundid, nagu ΑΩ , ΧΡ ja eestipäraselt kujundatud ristid. Rinnatisi kattev punutis on bütsantsijärgsele ajastule omane kaunistuselement.
- otse ikoonide all asuv vöö on kaetud kilbikestega, millele on nikerdatud Vana Testamendi temaatikaga pildid ja mis moodustab kogu kujuseina vahest kõige väärtuslikuma kunstilise detaili. Seda mitmel põhjusel. Esiteks on tegu märkimisväärse taiesega, kuivõrd pisikeste inimkujude voolimine puidust nõuab väga harva esinevat kunstilist võimekust. Teisalt nõuab kujutatavate teemade valik eelnevat teoloogilist uurimust, kuna nende vahendusel püüame teha usklike jaoks nähtavaks nende ja nende kohal asuvate ikoonide omavahelise seose, tuues esile Uue Testamendi aegsete sündmuste ettetähenduse Vana Testamendi aegsete sündmuste kaudu, mis kinnitavad kahe Lepingu omavahelist ühtsust. Siinsel ikonostaasil kujutatud ettetähenduslikud sündmused on nende kohal asuvate ikoonidega seotud järgmiselt:
• Jeesuse ikoon selle all asuva Aadama loomisega. Vastavalt bütsantsi ikoonimaalimise traditsioonile on Looja Jeesus. Aadam on siin kujutatud Issanda-kujulisena, sest Too lõi ta „Issanda kuju järgi ja Tema sarnaseks”.
• Jumalasünnitaja ikoon selle all asuva Eeva loomisega. Siin asuvad kõrvuti esimene – Vana Testamendi – Eeva ja Uus Eeva – Jumalasünnitaja.
• Ristija Johannese ikoon selle all asuva prohvet Eelijaga. Vana Testamendi prohvet-püüdleja koos noorema – Uue Testamendi – prohvetiga.
• Issanda pühakotta viimise ikoon selle all asuva põleva põõsaga, mis on Vana Testamendi aegne Jumalasünnitaja ettetähendus.
Ülejäänud ikoonidel on kujutatud kohalikke pühakuid. Nende juures esitatud ettetähendused on seotud sümbolitega, mis tulenevad kas nende identiteedist (nt piiskop) või eluloo üksikasjadest (nt kannatamine):
• püha piiskopmärter Platoni ikoon selle all asuva Aabrahami ohvriga. Siin on omavahel seostatud Aabraham kui Vana Testamendi ülempreester ühe Uue Testamendi ülempreestriga. Samuti on siin tegu vanatestamentliku Issanda ohvri ettetähendamisega.
• püha preestermärter Nikolai ikoon selle all asuva kolme noormehe kujutisega tulises ahjus, mis on Vana Testamendi martüüriumistseen.
• püha preestermärter Vassili ikoon selle all asuva kujutisega, millel on esitatud Mooses koos risti ja maoga.
• püha preesterkannataja Mihhaili ikoon selle all asuva prohvet Taanieliga lõvide augus, mis on samuti Vana Testamendi martüüriumistseen.
Kujuseinal asub veel ka teisi kujutisi:
• mõlemal pool kuninglikke uksi asuvad evangelistide sümbolid, kuna selle koha peal loetakse evangeeliumi.
• Rõõmukuulutamise ikoon kuninglikel ustel on samuti puulõikes.
• kuninglike uste kohale on nikerdatud Aabrahami külalislahkus , mis on püha õhtusöömaaja ettetähendus (seos jumaliku armulauaga).
• otse selle kohal, ematala keskel, asub püha rätik, mis kuulub käteta-tehtud ikoonide hulka ja oli aluseks esimeste Jeesuse ikoonide maalimisel .
• Ristilöödu alusele, kuhu tavaliselt on maalitud Aadama pealuu (see sümboliseerib esivanema-patu mahapesemist Issanda verega), sai nikerdatud ainulaadne ja äärmiselt harva esinev meistriteos, mis on pärit Meteora Suure Lavra XVI sajandi seinamaalilt, millel Aadamat ennast pestakse üleni Issanda verega.
Muud sümboolse tähendusega motiivid:
• keskmiste sammaste alustel, mis on üleni kaetud puulõigetega ja mille originaalid asuvad Püha Mäe Dionüsiuse kloostris, on lõvide (väe ja võimu sümbolid) kujud koos evangeeliumi kuulutavate inglitega.
• lohedel risti kõrval on kaks tähendust. Neid peetakse nii risti valvuriteks kui ka kurjuse kehastuseks. Seetõttu paiknevad nad alati risti – kui neid maha rõhuva headuse – all.
• Pärlikarp sümboliseerib Jumalasünnitajat (Ole rõõmus, Sa pärlikarp, mis jumaliku pärlikivi kasvatas. – Jumalasünnitaja akafisti kaanoni 5. laulu tropar). Usume, et see ikonostaas on ühes kõigi oma kaunistuste, sümbolite ja sellel asuvate kujutiste ning liigendusega ühtaegu nii kunstiliselt ja tehniliselt rikkalik, rahuldades igati pühakoja esteetilisi vajadusi, kui ka teoloogiliselt täiuslik. Kreeka keelest tõlkinud preester Tihhon Tammes.
Estonian to English: Guidebook: Kuressaare Castle Park. Dendrological Tour with Historical Facts and Folk Legends General field: Science Detailed field: Botany
Source text - Estonian 19. Põldvaher (Acer campestre)
D = 6,5 m, dendroloogiline haruldus. Oma 17 m kõrguse kasvuga on Eesti kõrgeim põldvaher.
Põldvaher on ümara võraga 15–25 m kõrgune puu, areaali ebasoodsates osades ka põõsasjas, kasvab Kesk-Euroopast kuni Lääne-Aasiani. Puud on pikaealised, võimelised kasvama kuni 400 aastat. Kuigi seda sügisel kuldkollaseks värvuvat, madalat, rohkelt haruneva võraga puud võib leida nii mõnestki linnapargist, on ta meil siiski vähe levinud. Selle peamiseks põhjuseks on põldvahtra pakasetalumatus.
Trieris säilitatavas 15. sajandist pärit käsikirjas, mis räägib taimedest armastuse tähistajatena on öeldud, et kui matkata võõrsile ja jätta armsam koju maha, tuleb rinda panna põldvahtra oksad. Vahtraleht, mis oma pika rootsuga on puu oksaga tugevalt seotud ega rebene kergesti, sümboliseerib seotust algallikaga.
Translation - English 19. Hedge Maple (Acer campestre)
D = 6.5 m, dendrological rarity. This 17 m tree is the tallest Hedge Maple in Estonia.
A deciduous tree, 15–25 m tall, with a trunk up to 1 m in diameter. Its bark is finely fissured, often somewhat corky. In unfavourable regions of the natural habitat Hedge Maple grows as a shrub. Native to Central Europe and W. Asia, this tree can grow 400 years old.
Leaves are in opposite pairs, 5–16 cm long and 5–10 cm wide, with five blunt, rounded lobes with a smooth margin, green in summer and golden in autumn. Hedge Maples can be found in some public parks, but are poorly represented in Estonia due to low resistance to frost.
A Trier manuscript, dating back to the 15th century and telling about plants as symbols of love, says that when going abroad and leaving your sweetheart at home, one must wear branches of Hedge Maple on the lapel. Maple leaf, strongly attached to the tree with a long petiole, symbolises connection with the source.
Estonian to English (Tartu University) English to Estonian (Tartu University) Finnish to English (Tallinn University ) Finnish to Estonian (Tallinn University )
Experienced freelance translator/interpreter with 31 years of professional experience, gained from working for various agencies and direct clients. Member of the Estonian Association of Translators and Interpreters. Proven ability to consistently deliver high-quality results on time and build a loyal base of clients. A skilled linguist and a natural problem solver, driven by a personal passion for excellence. MA in the English language (1991). Native Estonian speaker, bilingual in English (UK).
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